How Genuine is the Paradox of Irrationality? :: Davidson Paradoxes Irrational Essays

How Genuine is the Paradox of Irrationality? Unique: considering deciphering a conundrum of silliness, dubiously communicated by Donald Davidson with regards to clarifying shortcoming of will, I endeavor to show that it contains a noteworthy postulation seeing the psychological just as inspirational premise of our regulating practice. Initial, a nonsensical demonstration must include both a normal component and a non-objective component at its center. Second, silliness involves free and purposeful infringement of basic standards which the specialist considers right or important. Third, regulating understanding is just workable for objects that are both normal occasions and fit for mental tasks which assume some opportunity of will just as valuable portrayal of the encompassing reality. Fourth, there is consistently an issue of whether we find some kind of harmony between fitting individual mental things reliably with the general standard of conduct and keeping our basic capacity in following certain regulating standards which c omprise our balanced foundation. Fifth, the Catch 22 of mindlessness reflects and spellbinds a profound situated strain in the regularizing human practice under a definitive requirements of nature. At last, a definitive issue is the means by which we can locate the best lines on which our regularizing discerning gauges are based-best as in they are sufficiently close to cutoff points of human useful possibilities and are not very high as to render our regulating measures inert or even lamentable. In Mysteries of Irrationality, Davidson has the accompanying comment, which emerges from, yet isn't restricted to, the clarification of shortcoming of will: The hidden Catch 22 of silliness, from which no hypothesis can completely get away, is this: in the event that we clarify it excessively well, we transform it into a covered type of objectivity; while on the off chance that we dole out confusion too garrulously, we simply bargain our capacity to analyze madness by pulling back the foundation of levelheadedness expected to legitimize any analysis whatsoever. (1) Numerous scholars who attempt to give a satisfactory clarification of shortcoming of will and its bearing on the issue of sanity neglect to completely value the ramifications of the above comment, which I accept is a significant proposition for any endeavor to comprehend the wellspring of numerous evident riddles around akrasia. Maybe this disappointment is halfway because of the way that Davidson himself doesn't clarify how focal this proposal will be for investigating the psychological just as persuasive premise of our regulating practice. In this paper, I will examine in segment I the calculated elements of being nonsensical, viz.

David Walker Employment Law Scenario free essay sample

This paper will survey the Labor Laws for work at Barbara’s Bakery and to help with settling on sure that all the recruiting choices fall inside the law before the entryways open. Barbara’s Bakery proprietor has recruited our counseling firm to make proposals to distinguish the right laws the proprietor ought to follow in their choice procedure in the business employing arrangements. The laws that Barbara’s Bakery LLC, ought to be working with before the pastry kitchen really gets started is the Fair Labors Act of 1938 (FLSA) and the American Disability Act of 1990 on the grounds that the two of them are a significant choices in the choice procedure for procuring representatives to staff the bread shop. Reasonable Labor Act and Americans Disabilities Act Provisions Whenever a representative is recruited the Federal and nearby State guideline on wellbeing are significant with the goal that all word related, wellbeing, and even OSHA set orders are followed to the tee. While nearby state laws have rules set up for their own commands once a worker is recruited it doesn't void the government orders. We will compose a custom paper test on David Walker Employment Law Scenario or on the other hand any comparable subject explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page One of these rules set arrangements with the branch of wellbeing for instance to have representatives have a physician's approval from a specialist first of all. On the off chance that a representative is employed that has known illnesses, they should report them to the Department of Health for the general public’s wellbeing as a component of the arrangement. For the Fair Labor Standard Act has an arrangement on what number of work hours an employed specialist can work once they are recruited. The FLSA sets the standard for additional time pay, recordkeeping, youngster work, and least standard wages influencing laborers in private sections of employments, yet alongside the rules the Federal, State, and neighborhood governments levels require. The FLSA additionally covers nonexempt representatives so they are allowed to resuscitate least wages that can be no lesser than $7. 25 every hour for every FLSA. FLSA likewise warrants in the guidelines for extra time pay in that if the laborers are not to get under 1 and 1. multiple times the fundamental standard compensation rate, and is compulsory following forty hours of ork in a consistent work period or week. This law secures the specialist if Barbara’s Bakery whenever chooses to stow away or devise an approach to continue paying additional time when justified by law. This activity would be trailed by a potential suit by the laborers dependent on the FLSA arrangements. The American Disabilities Act states affirmed throug h Congress (1990) which denies the separation of laborers, benefits in people in general, lodging, and correspondence through telephones that the debilitated open use. Individuals with the Disabilities Act have social liberties that secure their incapacities particularly like any of a race, sex, shading, age, and religion type. The point in the ADA arrangement is that if an individual has what it takes to play out the activity position open, the ADA can shield them from segregation on the premises of their handicap. A common suit dependent on the law that oversees both the FLSA and the ADA for any infringement. â€Å"The reason for the affiliation arrangement is to keep managers from taking unfavorable activities dependent on unwarranted generalizations and suppositions about people who partner with individuals who have handicaps. In this way, it makes unlawful activities, for example, declining to enlist a person who has a kid with an inability dependent on a supposition that the candidate will be away from work too much or be in any case inconsistent, terminating a worker who works with individuals who are HIV-constructive or have AIDS dependent on the suspicion that the representative will get the ailment, or denying a representative social insurance inclusion accessible to others on account of the incapacity of a representatives subordinate. This archive clarifies the necessities of the ADAs affiliation arrangement and gives instances of how it applies to these and other work circumstances. ( The U. S. Equivalent Employment Opportunity Commission). † Consultant Recommendation As the advisor being approached to make proposals and recommendation on the arrangements that are significant for Barbara’s Bakery to be generally centered around is the Fair Labor Standard Act which requires all specialists to acquire a compensation of $7. 25 at the base and if the specialist works over 40 hours they are paid for additional time at this degree of pay. As the advisor the essential suggestion while recruiting laborers at the lowest pay permitted by law level is to verify Barbara’s Bakery directors show that laborers follow the arrangement in light of the accreditation by the Department of Labor for secondary school teenagers. Barbara’s Bakery will have individual consideration given by the counseling gathering to the insight about applying the FLSA gauges for least wages, additional time remuneration, recordkeeping, and youth work that directly affects each recently employed full and low maintenance specialist. Moreover, the staffing can comprise similarly of recruited laborers and outside temporary workers, the proposal for Barbara’s Bakery is to engage the two gatherings so an equalization in the two choices helps in having talented and in preparing laborers. Punishments for Lack of Compliance The guidelines for a business neglecting to pay all hours worked where the specialist is qualified for be paid can bring about a compensation infringement dependent on the FLSA least rates. Regardless of whether the organization that you are utilized at pays the right rate, your manager may have neglected to effectively add up to the entirety of the worked time you are to be made up for. The punishment for neglecting to account untouched worked could bring about an infringement of the base wages act if the measure of remuneration is separated with the representatives real aggregate of time doesn't coordinate the real time-based compensations. Now on the off chance that all the work is represented isn't right, at that point this can likewise be an infringement of extra time. Class activity pay and hour claims against Wal-Mart have created a lot of media consideration, as the retailer is the biggest private business on the planet. The organization has lost prominent claims over compensation infringement in California in 2005 and Pennsylvania in 2006, which brought about decisions of $172 million and $78 million individually for Wal-Mart workers in each state. †(Abou tLawsuits. com) Laws that Apply Here with Barbara’s Bakery to have two laws that could apply to the recruiting of laborers. The first is the laborer that is recruited as a self employed entity. The law expresses that a self employed entity which has an independent work status isn't dependent upon a similar business work or any duty laws that could concern them. Second, the laborer that is recruited both full and low maintenance is dependent upon all the prerequisites of the law for state and government personal expense, Medicare, and standardized savings retentions. Workers that are transitory are similarly as qualified in advantages to nonappearance, government managed savings retaining, and remuneration that apply to being jobless. End Our counseling group has effectively instructed the proprietor regarding Barbara’s Bakery, LLC on the recruiting endeavors to be in consistence with the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Significant here is that they won't in any structure overstep the laws or have claims brought against the business. The Fair Labor Standards Act and the Americans with Disabilities Act data is promptly accessible to survey, which has extremely instructive assists with offering help for all representatives whether abled to crippled when settling on a choice to employ.

Descriptive Essay SPLISH SPLASH †English Paper(100 Level Course)

Elucidating Essay SPLISH SPLASH †English Paper(100 Level Course) Free Online Research Papers Elucidating Essay SPLISH SPLASH English Paper(100 Level Course) My cheerful spot is an enormous, white mass that sits toward the side of my washroom. This huge bowl is the one spot in my home discharges all my pressure when I’m in it. The bath, I accept can fix nearly anything. It’s relieving and confined for those occasions when you need to close out the world and twist up in your own little casing. Or then again on those blustery evenings when you need to sit in boiling water and tune in to the downpour hit the rooftop top. While I sit inside the alleviating, warm waters I start to feel settled. The dull room makes the air pockets sparkle in the candlelight. As I develop warm I feel an unexpected tiredness come over me. I lay my head back and rest as the aroma of the air pocket shower starts to occupy the room. Now everything has been lifted and I have an inclination that I am in my hatchery and never need to leave. During when I am inside the bath I hear moderate music out of sight. Regardless of whether this is music I am playing on a CD or singing myself, depends. The light solid of breaking bubbles additionally is available in my calm encompassing. Some of the time the somewhat striking and irritating clamor of the planes will go with my music yet isn’t on for long in view of its upsetting commotion. As I sit back with my eyes shut I can nearly hear the candles shining, as though they were holy messengers singing gestures of recognition to God. All the sounds I hear in the bath, other than the intermittent planes, add to my quiet, serine environment. When shutting my eyes and tuning in to my music I start to smell the newness of the air pocket shower. The perfumed oil has now become lovely air pockets of tasty aromas. The smell of cinnamon and roses are likewise present from the candles setting all around my bath. Together these various aromas make up the most superb quiet smell. Cleaning up is one of my preferred activities. From the sound of air pockets to the smell of new blossoms, showers are quiet guilty pleasures. When inside the warm, scented fluid you will feel an all out harmony and quieting. The concerns and duties of your feverish life will vanish for this brief timeframe period and you will end up in a different universe. A world all your own that no one can take from you. Research Papers on Descriptive Essay SPLISH SPLASH - English Paper(100 Level Course)The Spring and AutumnThe Masque of the Red Death Room meaningsHip-Hop is ArtWhere Wild and West MeetMind TravelUnreasonable Searches and SeizuresAnalysis Of A Cosmetics AdvertisementThe Hockey GameNever Been Kicked Out of a Place This NiceQuebec and Canada

ETS Essay Samples - Reading The Different Kinds

ETS Essay Samples - Reading The Different KindsETS Essay Samples have been introduced in the field of social studies by the more than two hundred ETS teachers in different areas of US and UK. ETS Essay Samples is the most recommended website to study about US history, geography, language, art, science, writing, science, mathematics, and civil rights. In fact, it is the ideal tool to understand US History.Various tools are added in this online site to help students and potential students to understand American history and life in US. Some of these tools are:ETS Gre Essay Samples eTests provide you and your students the opportunity to explore the idea of what motivates Americans. It is quite common in the schools to tell the students how 'America is not in war' and why we cannot conquer the world. On the other hand, it is required by the United States government to justify why the US should control a large part of the world in war. The main purpose of the GRE is to make all students to understand the importance of the interrelation between concepts and their arguments.Students who have to sit for the multiple-choice tests are less able to learn. This is why there are many federal tests introduced in the colleges and universities to make students be able to get to learn everything. The students are provided to answer these kinds of questions with this tool. The preparation for this kind of test is also given by this online tool, so that students will be capable to answer questions and get to learn the right way.The essay tests are given for certain areas and the main objective of the essay is to help students understand. The essay samples provided by this site are quite reliable and the students do not have to feel all the pressure of the multiple-choice question. The tools of the website can help you answer the questions and write about the topic which is focused on in this online tutorial. The students will not feel all the pressure of the multiple-choice questi ons as the essay samples will help them answer the questions in a certain way.The multiple-choice answer format of the essay samples is meant to make all the students to learn the principle of analyzing and writing about the topic as the right answer. This means that, it helps the students to learn the technique of analysis and writing the topic and make it their personal writings and submit it in the papers. The students are provided with the vocabulary, the grammar, and the logic of the essay samples.The users of the website are provided with different kinds of essay samples and they can download them as well. This means that, it is possible to download the essay samples from the site and use them on your own. The resources and the tools of the website are so important to make the students to learn and it can make your students and potential students to succeed and learn in the right way.

Organ Donation And The Death Donor - 1538 Words

Organ donation has been on the downward trend in the last couple of years while the need for healthy organ donors are on the rise. On the average day, twenty-two people die while waiting on the organ transplant list. While it can only take one person to be a living donor to save a life, and in the case of being a donor after death, one person can save up to eight people. Since the gap between organ donation and the need for organs continues to grow apart, something has to be done to reverse this trend. People must be encouraged to become a living organ donor and to be an after death donor. The key to being an after death donor, is that the family members need to know about their loved one’s wishes and make sure to have a living will in place. Doctors are placed in that insensitive position to talk with the families after the death of loved ones, about whether the patient was an organ donor while trying to be considerate to their loss. There have been many ideas to help reduce the organ transplant list in order to preserve more lives, while educating the country on the importance of organ donations. To encourage more people to become an organ donor the United States Government needs to change the laws dealing with organ donations, in order to bring down the waiting periods on the organ transplant list. The waiting list for organs transplant has now surpassed one hundred and twenty two thousand people long, and growing every ten minutes with a new name added to the list. InShow MoreRelatedOrgan Donation : Organ Donations Essay1323 Words   |  6 PagesPreviously organ donation has encountered organ donors and organ supply rejections. Organ donation challenges and demands decreased as the organ shortages increase over the years. Organ donation mission is to save many terminally ill recipients at the end stages of their lives, the significance of the organ donation is to give back to restore one’s quality of life. The ongoing issues may present an idealistic portrait of how these issues may be resolved. As a result organ donation mission is toRead MoreOrgan Donation And Organ Organs Essay1308 Words   |  6 PagesOrgan donations have encountered organ donor and organ supply rejections. Organ donation challenges and demands increase as the organ shortages increase over the years. Organ donation’s mission is to save many terminally ill recipients at the end stages of their lives. The significance of the organ donation is to give back to restore one’s quality of life. The ongoing issues may present an idealistic portrait of how these issues may be resolved. As a result, the mission of organ donations are toRead MoreAltruism Over Incentives For Organ Donation Essay1521 Words   |  7 PagesAltruism Over Incentives for Organ Donation Over the years, organ donation challenges and demands increased inversely in proportion to the organ shortages. The primary mission of donor’s organizations is to save as many terminally ill recipients at the end stages of their lives as possible with an end goal of giving these recipients a normal a life span. The significance of organ donation is to restore an ailing person’s quality of life. The ongoing issue of organ shortages may be a symptom ofRead MoreOrgan Procurement And Transplantation Network1321 Words   |  6 Pageswhile waiting for a donated organ to become available for transplant. The number of people in need of a transplant is growing much faster than the number of cadaveric organ donors: from 1988 to 2012, the number of people on the waiting list grew from 15,029 to 117,040, while, during the same interval, the number of deceased donors rose from 5,901 to a still inadequate 14,011 (â€Å"Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network†). In th e United States, the cadaveric donation system is described as â€Å"informedRead MoreWaiting Before Waiting By Merriam Webster Essay1595 Words   |  7 Pagesgame of life and death. Instead of counting days until the abundant aroma of the plentifully Thanksgiving meal, it was how many days until one dies because they are in need of an organ to sustain life and all it has to offer. This is the thought of more than 4,500 Georgians who are currently waiting for an organ transplant according to Georgia Organ Donation records. Organ donation is a need that never come to a halt, instead it is a need that increase daily, becoming an organ donor is very simpleRead MoreA Persuasive Speech On Organ Donation947 Words   |  4 Pageshere to talk to you about becoming an organ donor. Many people wait for years for organs to become available, the need for organ donors is growing. Donate and save a life. If you had a chance to save a life and or change their life, would you do it? If you answe red no, to this question would your feelings change, towards organ donation if someone in your family or close to you need an organ transplant? Can you imagine, what it would feel like to get handed a death sentence like this and to know thereRead MoreThe Sources And Outcomes Of The Gift Of Life Essay1509 Words   |  7 PagesThe Sources and Outcomes of the Gift of Life. Organ donations stimulate positivity for the terminally ill despite all the challenges that derive prior. It can persevere the gift of life or duration period of time. The transplantation industry process may have a divine outcome before it withstands various undergoes. Organ donation sources may not be measured according to the demand or advantages, the transplantation organ shortage obstacles, independent characteristics or incentives, or social costRead MorePersuasive Outline-Organ Donation886 Words   |  4 PagesPERSUASIVE SPEECH OUTLINE – ORGAN DONATION Topic:  Organ donation Thesis Statement:  Becoming an organ donor after death is not only an important decision for yourself, but it is also an important decision for the life that you may have the power to save. Purpose:  To persuade my audience to consider becoming organ donors after death    Introduction: 1. Organ donation is a selfless way to give back to others, and to be able to make a huge difference by giving another person a second chanceRead MoreSpeech on Organ Donation Essay1260 Words   |  6 PagesSpeech on Organ Donation Good Morning. Today I am going to talk to you all about the delicate topic of organ donation, and share with you some of my views on the subject. What are the major problems in our society today? Illicit Drug Abuse? Excessive Alcohol intake? Or maybe the increasing levels of Obesity? I bet none of you thought of the sheerRead MoreAltruism Over Incentives For Organ Donation Essay1535 Words   |  7 PagesAltruism over Incentives for Organ Donation Organ donations have encountered organ donor, and as a result, organ supply decreases. Over the years, organ donation challenges and demands increase inversely in proportion to the organ shortages. The primary mission of donor’s organizations is to save as many terminally ill recipients at the end stages of their lives as possible with an end goal of giving these recipients a normal a life span. The significance of organ donation is to restore an ailing person’s

The Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald - 1239 Words

Coco Bai Ms. Dettmar English III 15 October 2015 Luhramann’s Film – A Great Adaptation of The Great Gatsby Through Nick’s narration in F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, Gatsby’s possessive personality and his blind love for Daisy eventually lead to the failure of his American dream. When casting the movie of The Great Gatsby, Baz Luhramann may have changed some of the dialogue, but he does stay unflinchingly true to the spirit of the book and its morals, which I think is vastly more important. Thus, Baz Luhramann’s film is a successful adaptation to F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, for it not only successfully demonstrates Gatsby’s ultimate zeal for Daisy, but it also includes a more visual and dramatic image of Gatsby himself and the harsh reality, in which everyone betrays him at the end, showing how his â€Å"American Dream† is a failure. When Gatsby’s over possessiveness plays a crucial role in the development of the character’s personality as the story progresses in Fitzgerald’s book, the adaptation of the movie just makes this trait of him more vividly presented. On page 132 in the book, Gatsby forces Daisy to speak for his own dream that Daisy never loves Tom by asking Daisy to â€Å"just tell him the truth-that you never loved him-and it’s all wiped out forever†. On this page, Gatsby is depicted as a very controlling and selfish man about his love when he advises Daisy to make a ‘right’ choice. In the counterpart of this scene in the movie, Luhramann highlightsShow MoreRelatedThe Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald1393 Words   |  6 PagesF. Scott Fitzgerald was the model of the American image in the nineteen twenties. He had wealth, fame, a beautiful wife, and an adorable daughter; all seemed perfect. Beneath the gilded faà §ade, however, was an author who strug gled with domestic and physical difficulties that plagued his personal life and career throughout its short span. This author helped to launch the theme that is so prevalent in his work; the human instinct to yearn for more, into the forefront of American literature, where itRead MoreThe Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald1343 Words   |  6 PagesHonors English 10 Shugart 18 Decemeber 2014 The Great Gatsby F. Scott Fitzgerald s 1925 novel The Great Gatsby is a tragic love story, a mystery, and a social commentary on American life. The Great Gatsby is about the lives of four wealthy characters observed by the narrator, Nick Carroway. Throughout the novel a mysterious man named Jay Gatsby throws immaculate parties every Saturday night in hope to impress his lost lover, Daisy Buchanan. Gatsby lives in a mansion on West Egg across from DaisyRead MoreThe Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald1155 Words   |  5 PagesThe Great Gatsby The Jazz Age was an era where everything and anything seemed possible. It started with the beginning of a new age with America coming out of World War I as the most powerful nation in the world (Novel reflections on, 2007). As a result, the nation soon faced a culture-shock of material prosperity during the 1920’s. Also known as the â€Å"roaring twenties†, it was a time where life consisted of prodigality and extravagant parties. Writing based on his personal experiences, author F. ScottRead MoreThe Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald1166 Words   |  5 Pagesin the Haze F. Scott Fitzgerald lived in a time that was characterized by an unbelievable lack of substance. After the tragedy and horrors of WWI, people were focused on anything that they could that would distract from the emptiness that had swallowed them. Tangible greed tied with extreme materialism left many, by the end of this time period, disenchanted. The usage of the literary theories of both Biographical and Historical lenses provide a unique interpretation of the Great Gatsby centered aroundRead MoreThe Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald845 Words   |  3 PagesIn F. Scott Fitzgerald’s novel, The Great Gatsby, colors represent a variety of symbols that relate back to the American Dream. The dream of being pure, innocent and perfect is frequently associated with the reality of corruption, violence, and affairs. Gatsby’s desire for achieving the American Dream is sought for through corruption (Schneider). The American Dream in the 1920s was perceived as a desire of w ealth and social standings. Social class is represented through the East Egg, the WestRead MoreThe Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald Essay970 Words   |  4 Pagesrespecting and valuing Fitzgerald work in the twenty-first century? Fitzgerald had a hard time to profiting from his writing, but he was not successful after his first novel. There are three major point of this essay are: the background history of Fitzgerald life, the comparisons between Fitzgerald and the Gatsby from his number one book in America The Great Gatsby, and the Fitzgerald got influences of behind the writing and being a writer. From childhood to adulthood, Fitzgerald faced many good andRead MoreThe Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald2099 Words   |  9 Pagesauthor to mirror his life in his book. In his previous novels F. Scott Fitzgerald drew from his life experiences. He said that his next novel, The Great Gatsby, would be different. He said, â€Å"In my new novel I’m thrown directly on purely creative work† (F. Scott Fitzgerald). He did not realize or did not want it to appear that he was taking his own story and intertwining it within his new novel. In The Great Gatsby, by F. Scott Fitzgerald, he imitates his lifestyle through the Buchanan family to demonstrateRead MoreThe Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald1607 Words   |  7 Pages The Great Gatsby is an American novel written in 1925 by F. Scott Fitzgerald. One of the themes of the book is the American Dream. The American Dream is an idea in which Americans believe through hard work they can achieve success and prosperity in the free world. In F. Scott Fitzgerald s novel, The Great Gatsby, the American Dream leads to popularity, extreme jealousy and false happiness. Jay Gatsby’s recent fortune and wealthiness helped him earn a high social position and become one of the mostRead MoreThe Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald1592 Words   |  7 PagesMcGowan English 11A, Period 4 9 January 2014 The Great Gatsby Individuals who approach life with an optimistic mindset generally have their goals established as their main priority. Driven by ambition, they are determined to fulfill their desires; without reluctance. These strong-minded individuals refuse to be influenced by negative reinforcements, and rely on hope in order to achieve their dreams. As a man of persistence, the wealthy Jay Gatsby continuously strives to reclaim the love of hisRead MoreThe Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald1646 Words   |  7 PagesThe 1920s witnessed the death of the American Dream, a message immortalized in F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby. Initially, the American Dream represented the outcome of American ideals, that everyone has the freedom and opportunity to achieve their dreams provided they perform honest hard work. During the 1920s, the United States experienced massive economic prosperity making the American Dream seem alive and strong. However, in Fitzgerald’s eyes, the new Am erican culture build around that

Effective Decision Making Process-Free-Samples-Myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about the Decision making Process. Answer: Introduction Decision making is a cognitive process resulting in selection of a belief or a course of action which is appropriate as per the situation. A decision making process helps in making a final choice that may or may not result in a prompt action. The process allows in identifying the best alternate based on values, preferences and beliefs in order to make an effective decision. It is regarded as a problem solving exercise that includes problem solving activity in order to derive an optimal result (Aguinis Kraiger, 2009). This is an optimal process which is more rational than irrational. Individual decision making is considered as one of the crucial part in gaining competency. It is therefore important for gaining effectiveness and considering better outcome on a long run. A large part of the decision making includes finite set of alternatives important in decision making process. The significant task is to line up the activities in the order of priority (Armstrong Taylor, 2014). The essay reflects the critical personal reflection in decision making process. It focuses on the issues that occurred during the process of the decision making and suggests the learning. It further suggests the process of decision making in implementing objectives. Different models regarding the decision making are well discussed in the essay in order to create effective decision (Bakker Leiter, 2010). Scenario I worked as an intern at Telstra as an assistant to the HR manager. My job was to assist him in recruitment, selection, making performance sheet and preparing check list in order to determine the performance of the employees. I had gained excellent knowledge through employment of theoretical knowledge in a practical way. My manager helped me in gaining experiencing and allowed me working on my own. He completely trusted me while implying knowledge in an accurate way. This process helped me in thinking widely and improvising according through implementation of knowledge. I was given a responsibility to set job description, sheet of all the employees in the company. This is to pool in the most desirable candidate in order to manage the organizational goals. This is important to gain desired results by organizing the most accurate information (Kyndt, Dochy, Michielsen Moeyaert, 2009). In one situation had to work with my supervisor to select a candidate for the post of a management trainee. The position was for the existing employees only. My job was to take the interview of the candidate where I found a candidate with 2 years relevant experience is eligible for the vacancy. After short listing of candidates I found Mr Jake who already had a prior experience he was expected more than the standard salary. However I negotiated with him in order to appoint him. I made the decision related to his appointment as he was the right candidate according to the requisites. After inquiring about the situation with my supervisor I found out that the prior performance of the candidate with the previous company is one of the important parameter to make decision pertaining to the selection. I played a major role in making decision which was crucial for gaining individual goals. However I came across a situation he issue can be subjected to the availability heuristic. The risk ass ociated with the managers decision of rating the employee depends upon average performance based on his recent performance. They usually ignore the true picture of the overall performance of the employee during the whole period. The situation is related to the availability bias that depicts the tendency of people in decision making. It is important for making judgement related to the recent available knowledge. It is necessary for the effective decision making. It is important for the point of view of gaining competent roles in order to make decision. This is important for gaining accuracy while making a decision. It is necessary for the process of managing organizational change. It is important enough for dealing with the major alternate that are available in order to gain effectiveness. This is important for gaining effectiveness in order to deal with the ineffectiveness. It is necessary from the point of view of gaining sustainable objectives. It is important enough for dealing with the situation in an appropriate way (Lengnick-Hall, et al 2009). This is an important practice in order to make decision in an organization. Most appropriately, it is evident from the point of view of gaining effectiveness. It is necessary in gaining better results. In order to gain accuracy, it is important for dealing in different way. This is necessary for dealing in decision making and using the most appropriate tools in order to gain knowledge. Its necessary for developing better insight for an individual in order to gain accuracy. This is important for managing different role in order to arrange the activities in the most appropriate way. This is important in order to verify the effective individual goals. It is an important parameter necessary for managing different role in order to gain result. It is necessary in reviewing a decision and working according. It is necessary for dealing with the outcome in order to gain efficacy. Understanding and define situation The major requirements to make steady, sane and esteem augmenting decision that permit an individual the basic leadership. It is sufficiently fundamental for creating viable parts in connection to the individual approach. The leader needs to make reliable, level-headed and esteem decisions inside the predetermined hierarchical or individual requirements. These choices take palace in stages (Noe, et al 2007). The leader is had with finish data; he can distinguish all the applicable choices and that too in a fair-minded way; and picks the alternative that has the best utility. In any case, in pragmatic setting, the leaders have to opt for a correct model. They pick the one that has all the earmarks of being the most effective idea. This procedure goes under limited soundness in which the human personality can't plan and afterward take care of the issues in a full reasonable manner. The leader catches the streamlined model and afterward settles on the choice inside restricted comprehens ion of complex issues that can prompt acceptable results (Sandhya and Kumar, 2011). It is apparent from executing this model in the given situation. The formal way ought to have been improving the situation and the examination of the recently joined employees as indicated by the current policies as decided by the leader. This is imperative for dealing with the objectives relating to the choice for the issue. Following this model, leader can settle on normal choices without doing formal look for the issue. Formal pursuit could have kept away from the threat of accessibility heuristics while settling on the choice of offering rates to the employees, along these lines prompting effective results (Beugelsdijk, 2008). Merits of Individual decision making Thus it is important for an individual to find out the most appropriate way in order to deal with the situation in a definite way. It is more or less related with an individual behavior and belief. The common practice of decision making is important enough to gain competency. This is important from the point of view of gaining accuracy while carrying out the decision making objective. It is necessary for gaining in gaining objectives. This is done by focusing on the objectives and managing the activities in the best possible way (Boselie, 2010). The rational action theory of Simon projects the rational behavior of manager in every situation. This tends to create an effective relationship in dealing with the inefficiencies that are created due to the complex nature of a problem. This is important from the point of view of remaining rational in their decision making (Boxall Purcell, 2011). Human are tend to simplify the situation and takes a decision which is more suitable. This is ef fective from the point of view of gaining effectiveness and developing better option. It is important for managing the resources that are available with the organization. The manager continually accumulates the information and uses it in an effective way. This is important to accumulate or save an individual for gaining better insight (Boxall, Purcell Wright, 2007). Demerits of individual decision making Individual decision making at time can be negative for others and oneself. It is due to the fact that the person taking the decision can be wrong. It is not necessary that the person taking the decision will be right. The onus of decision making resides with the one who makes decision. It is therefore important for managing the decision on a long run. The aspect related to the organizational changes and development lies with the changes that are taking place in the decision making process. This will thoroughly affect the decision making capacity in order to gain competency (Bratton Gold, 2012). It is evident from the point of view of developing applicable effectiveness. This is important from the point of view of managing long term sustainable goals. It is therefore necessary for arranging long term capacity and arranging activities in order to attain efficiency. This is necessary from the point of view of gaining accuracy and arranging the benefit in order to gain sustainable resul ts. For an individual it is important to develop an approach that will allow in managing effectiveness. The decision making largely affects the organization and creates a sort of difference in between the organizational goals and effectiveness. It is necessary from the point of view of developing better opportunities in order to gain competency. It is therefore necessary in order to gain effectiveness and developing the concrete objectives in order to attain better objectives. It is therefore necessary for gaining competent results. It is necessary to gain better result and managing the objectives. It is therefore necessary for managing opportunities and arranging them in accordance with the relative opportunity in order to gain competent goals. This is necessary for gaining better opportunity and arranging them according to the decision making. It is therefore necessary for arranging sustainable goals and developing opportunity in order to gain results. This is effective from the p oint of view of developing concrete objectives and deriving necessary goals. It is evident from the point of view of gaining relatively better organizational goals. This is necessary from the point of view of developing concrete objectives and arranging results in accordance with the better objectives. This is necessary for arranging better decision making tools (Collings Mellahi, 2009). Risk perception The relative risk related to the decision making depend upon the objectives. It depends upon the individual belief and objectives. There is a definite amount of risk associated with the object. It is important from the point of view of delivering sustainable objectives and deriving the functions that are necessary for furnishing rational objectives. It is necessary while keeping in mind the associated project and the object. It is important for an individual to develop an effective decision making and creating a concrete object. The purpose behind the perception is to deliver sustainable objective and delivering the objective. The perception related to the organizational development and concrete objectives resides with the development of the individual objective. The risk is related to the individual belief and the amount of risk that is associated with the decision making. Every decision includes a definite amount of risk. In order to manage a goal, it is important to develop an eff ective tool that allow in arranging organizational goals. Framing effects The framing effects are the effects that reside on the individual and develop the individual decision making capacity. In order to develop a concrete objective, it is pretty much evident to come up with an effective objective that will help an individual to frame an effect that is necessary for gaining concrete objectives. It is therefore important for developing concrete objective and framing the task according to the individual capacity. It is necessary for deploying an effective approach that will allow in gaining competent roles. This is necessary for the purpose of gaining better results. It is necessary for arranging the individual objectives and developing the goals in accordance with the effectiveness. It is necessary for managing the objectives and arranging the necessity as per the requirements. It is necessary for gaining better objectives and arranging the roles in order to gain better role in gaining long term sustainable results (Dessler, 2009). A systematic approach to decision making It is therefore important to identify the decision possibility. This will help in taking a decision in the most appropriate way For the purpose of gaining a definite objective, it is important to Define the right aims for the decision It is necessary to identify the right participants in decision making process. This is necessary for managing the decision making and creates a better and responsible environment. Before making a decision it is relevant to find out a proper objective. The Understanding pertaining to the relevant alternative framings is important In order to gain an effectiveness and continuity, it is necessary to generate alternate For the purpose of gaining accuracy, it is necessary to Choose the best alternatives In order to gain an effective decision making, it is important to deploy a systematic approach. The systematic approach will help in gaining sustainable objectives. There is a necessity to deploy an efficient approach that will allow in gaining competent role and managing the activities in order to deploy better decision making objective. This approach helps in gaining better decision making and arranging the individual goals according to the priority. It is important from the point of view of deploying better opportunities and gaining results as per the necessary derailing. A systematic decision making approach is important for gaining better goals. It is necessary for managing the goals in a better way. It is necessary for implying a better approach and defining the roles according to the individual calibre (Dowling, 2008). Promote There is a necessity to find out an effective approach related to the decision making. The approach will help in delivering the concrete objectives. There are different applicable approaches that are implied as per the given situation. It is evident enough for dealing with the situation in a better way. An awareness related to the problem will help in deriving accuracy and arranging the role in the most effective way. It is necessary for managing the roles and responsibilities and deploying them accordingly. It is relevant from the point of view of decision making. There is a necessity to develop a concrete objectives and availing the most appropriate objective while gaining sustainable objectives. It is therefore necessary for gaining effectiveness. It is therefore necessary for developing a plain objective that will help in arranging definite goals. This is important enough for gearing up the objectives and arranging the relative better objects and managing better results (Harzing Pinnington, 2010). SWOT Analysis It is important for understanding the important measures and assuring the best approach of decision making. It is necessary for the purpose of determining the strengths and the factors that affect the decision making process. In order to make an appropriate decision, it is evident to adopt an effective decision making technique. The decision making tools help in understand the organizational performance. The system was new to me and it was difficult for me to work in such a big organization. Strength: Determined Hard working Weakness: Limited experience The hiring process is complicated and new to me Opportunities: Once in a life time opportunity to work with a large size firm Apprenticeship will provide with future benefit Threats: Limited time for studies hence affecting my curriculum Long working hours affecting my personal life as well Conclusion The overall purpose is to rank the alternatives according to the priority. It is necessary from the point of view of initiating a task and applying an appropriate decision making in gaining competency. All the criterias are considered while organizing an appropriate decision making. It is therefore important from the point of view of achieving relative progress. This is a necessary parameter in organizing results in order to gain competency. It is therefore important to implement the most effective decision making technique in order to attract strategic growth. It is one of the important tasks necessary in applying the acquired knowledge. This is an important factor that leads to formation of a decision making paradox. References Aguinis, H., Kraiger, K. (2009). Benefits of training development for individuals teams, organizations, society.Annual review of psychology,60, 451-474. Armstrong, M., Taylor, S. (2014).Armstrong's handbook of human resource management practice. Kogan Page Publishers. Bakker, A. B., Leiter, M. P. (Eds.). (2010).Work engagement: A handbook of essential theory research. Psychology press. Berman, E.M., Bowman, J.S., West, J.P. Van Wart, M.R.,(2012). Human resource management in public service: Paradoxes, processes, problems. Sage. Beugelsdijk, S., (2008).Strategic human resource practices product innovation. Organization Studies, 29(6), pp.821-847. Boselie, P., 2010. Strategic human resource management: A balanced approach. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. Boxall, P. Purcell, J., (2011). Strategy human resource management. Palgrave Boxall, P.F., Purcell, J. Wright, P.M., 2007. The Oxford handbook of human resource management. Oxford University Press on Demand. Bratton, J. Gold, J., 2012. Human resource management: theory practice. Palgrave Macmillan. Collings, D.G. Mellahi, K., 2009. Strategic talent management: A review research agenda. Human resource management review, 19(4), pp.304-313. Dessler, G., 2009. A framework for human resource management.Pearson Education India. Dowling, P., 2008. International human resource management: Managing people in a multinational context. Cengage Learning. Harzing, A.W. Pinnington, A. eds., 2010. International human resource management. Sage. Kyndt, E., Dochy, F., Michielsen, M., Moeyaert, B. (2009). Employee retention: Organisational personal perspectives.Vocations Learning,2(3), 195-215. Lengnick-Hall, M. L., Lengnick-Hall, C. A., Andrade, L. S., Drake, B. (2009). Strategic human resource management: The evolution of the field.Human resource management review,19(2), 64-85. Macmillan.Dowling, P., (2008). International human resource management: Managing people in a multinational context. Cengage Learning. Noe, R. A., Hollenbeck, J. R., Gerhart, B., Wright, P. M. (2007).Fundamentals of human resource management. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. Sandhya, K., Kumar, D. P. (2011). Employee retention by motivation.Indian Journal of science technology,4(12), 1778-1782. Sparrow, P., Brewster, C., Chung, C. (2016).Globalizing human resource management. Routledge.

Termpaper on Joint product costing Essay Example

Termpaper on Joint product costing Essay A new paradigm has been emerged in the present industrial sector where a manufacturing organization uses a single process to produce more than one product. This paradigm adds complexity in the simultaneous production of more than one product from a Joint process. Their determination at the cost of such products, individually, hence posses a difficult task to the cost accountant especially because they are of such varied nature characterized by many varieties. Despite difficulty it is possibly essential to make a fair and equitable allocation of cost to each product nice this is critically important not only for stock valuation and income determination but also increasingly for assessment of excise duty, transfer pricing etc, and also for divisional profitability etc. This study concentrates to explore the area not so much conceptually, but more as a practical guide to illustrate some of the methods adopted in practice by the manufactures. We will write a custom essay sample on Termpaper on Joint product costing specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Termpaper on Joint product costing specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Termpaper on Joint product costing specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The methods fall under two broad categories a) Market value basis and b) Physical measurement basis. The market value basis adopts the accepted cost concept of what the product can bear while the physical measurement basis is based on physical measures as weight, illume etc. Literature survey has highlighted certain other methods as techno commercial factor evaluation basis and input based cost driver basis. Robert Kaplan and Antonym Atkinson have given an illustration as how the Joint and by-products costing method can be used as a tool in the resource allocation process. The paper aims to generate further discussion, with illustration from more industries to help formulate proper guidelines on this complex issue of Joint and by-product costing. 2. 0: Acknowledgement Going through various sources of information we arrived at the generally accepted cost accounting practices where the vital inputs on concepts along with practical examples were compiled from the articles and textbooks of reputed authors as stated in the references. We are grateful to Tanzania Hues, Assistant Professor, department of Accounting Information Systems, who germinated the idea of bringing out such a special paper on Joint Product and By-product Costing. We would like to convey our heartiest gratitude to the entire information provider for their valuable suggestions, information and contributions that have helped us much in preparing this report. 3. : Origin of the report In case of identifying, allocating and apportioning common costs to several products or output services the multi-product or multi-process and multi service industries always face an uncertainty. The final product or service cost will reflect the full cost only if these common costs are allocated or apportioned in some way to the individual final product. In the case of process industries, where the process flow is common up to a stage and then segregates into two or more process lines to produce more than one product then the problem of allocation or apportionment of common r Joint cost becomes significant. The essence of Joint product or by-product costing lays in the allocation or apportionment of Joint processing cost to the individual products in as equitable a manner as possible. Although the allocation or apportionment of Joint costs to determine the full cost of individual products may not be of much help from the point of view of management decision-making, it is very much essential for external financial reporting, reporting under various statutory requirements, valuation for tax legislation and also for valuation of inventories for horn period profit determination. The phenomenon of a production process, producing simultaneously, more than one product could be observed in a wide variety of industries, For example: Coal mining washing and Coke production resulting in the production of Coal, Coke, Gas, Tar and Ammonia. Petroleum refining resulting in the production of Petrol, Kerosene, Diesel, Furnace oil etc. In this industry a very large number of Joint and byproducts occur in cracking or refining crude oil. Agricultural Product industries such as vegetable oil crushing of oil seeds resulting in production of oil and cake. From the process of refining oil, soap stock arises which could be further processed into soap and allied products. In Milk industry, the three joint products are Cream, Liquid Milk and Skim. The cream is again processed into Butter and ghee. The liquid milk and skim is processed to produce whole milk, full cream milk and standard milk. 3. : Purpose of the report The objectives of this term paper is to identify the principles to be followed in the recognition of products as Joint product or by-products and to prescribe some generally accepted methods to determine more accurate and reliable cost of ND uniform basis to provide better transparency in the ascertaining the cost of Joint and by-products. The ascertainment of the cost of Joint products and by-product can be used for the following purposes: (I) Uniform basis of Valuation of manufactured products, Work -in-pro cess and intermediate products. For assessment of excise duty and other value based taxes relating to Joint products and by-products. (iii) Assessment of value of specific products under various measures such as anti- dumping, transfer pricing etc. , (v) Determining the value and responding to regulatory authorities for Joint products or services. V) Measuring product performance and internal reporting for segment profitability. 3. 3: Methodology: In order to prepare this term paper we have applied our classroom knowledge as well as taken help from different writers books preferably from the book of Cost Accounting by Charles T. Horned et al. This term paper also comprises the combined effort of all group members. We have tried to present the concept of Joint production cost in variety of organizational situation and how this cost can be allocated to different products from the Joint production process. Along with Joint cost ND its allocation we have also tried to present how the by product from a production process can be recognized and presented in the financial statements specially in the income statement of the company. 3. 4: Limitation of the Paper The report may encounter the shortcomings due to the following reasons: Lack of practical knowledge to link up with theories. Probability of skipping any material items. Dependency on the secondary information. Time constraints 3. 5: Terminology used in the term paper Joint-products: Two or more product that have high total sales value compared with he total sales values of other products yielded by Joint production process (Horned) or in other words -Two or more products separated in the course of processing, each having a sufficiently high sellable value to merit recognition as a main product. Example: Ethylene and Propylene arising from the cracking of Naphtha. By-product: A product, which is secondary to the main product and obtained during the course of manufacture of recognized main product. It is called a by-product because of the relatively lower importance it has as compared with the main product or products. By-product cost is commonly regarded as difficult to determine. By-product is usually subjected to further processing after separation from the main product, if such processing will increase the value added or promote the sale of the main product. For example, in a Petroleum Refinery, gas was earlier considered as a by-product. Now, it has assumed importance like petrol, diesel, etc. And it is being treated as a Joint product. Scrap: Residual material left over when making a product. Waste: Discarded substances having no significant value (as distinct from scrap)- ECMA. Joint Cost: Joint cost are defined as common cost of facilities or services employed in the output of two or more simultaneously produced or otherwise closely related operations, commodities or service. Split off point: The point in the common production process at which the separate products are identifiable. There may be process and the total numbers of products that emerge from the process. 4. 0: Body of the report 4. 1: The nature of Joint Product 4. 1. 1 . Fixed and variable proportions Although Joint products have a definite quantitative relationship to each other, this relationship may take different forms. The nature of the Joint products output can either be in fixed or variable proportions. The relationship between the products is fixed if an increase in the output of one product of a group results in a proportionate increase in the output of the other products. In contrast, if the increase in output of one product results in either a decrease or has no effect on the output of one or more of the remaining products then the relationship between the outputs is one of variable proportions. This variation in output proportions may only be controlled within certain limits and only arises in certain processes. 4. 1. 2. Intermediate and final products: Joint products arise from a common process or series of processes, the latter giving rise to intermediate products. Intermediate products can be defined as those products to be further treated and processed to produce main product, where the main products in a multi-purpose operation may take the form of intermediate products at a certain stages of production and finished products at the final stage of production. 4. 1. 3. Joint and Separation costs: The fundamental feature of Joint product is that they incur Joint cost up to a certain stage of production, known as the split off point, where they become recognizable as operate products. The costs incurred in the Joint process cannot be separately traced to the individual product output Subsequent to the split-off point any cost incurred e. G. The additional processing costs, can be identified with specific products and may be termed separable or attributable cost. For a cost to be separable, it must be possible to trace it with reasonable certainty to a single product. 4. 2. Joint Product By-product costing principles 4. 2. 1 . There are two basic approaches to costing of Joint product and by-products, which are given below: Joint Product Approach: Under this approach, more than one reduce is treated as Joint product and the Joint processing costs are allocated between the products on an appropriate basis. Main Product / By-product Approach: Under this approach, only one product will be given the status of a main product and all other products arising from the process will be treated as by-products. In this method, the Joint costs are not allocated between the products instead; the net revenue (sales value less further processing expenses, selling expenses, etc. F any) generated from the products is credited to the Joint costs and the remaining Joint cost is totally absorbed by the main product. . 2. 2. Recognition off product as Joint product or by-product: There are no hard and fast rules to determine whether a product is a Joint product or by-product. Normally, products which are incidental to the produc tion of main products and products which are insignificant in value product changes from by-product to main product or vice versa due to a number of factors like changes in market price, competition, demand or technology may suggest a re-classification. Therefore, the classification between the main product and by- product has to be reviewed continuously. 4. 2. 3. Identification of Joint and By- Products: Recognition of Joint products and by-products is purely by relative commercial values. Further, such relative values are not permanent as their relative importance of Joint and by-products is evanescent in nature, as can be seen by the following two examples. In the sugar industry, till about four decades back, press mud was Just a waste product of nuisance value, that needed continuous disposal at additional costs or else it will create contamination. Subsequently, through research, it was found that the press mud contained rich nutrients which stimulate plant growth, as a result f which it became a commercially valuable product. 4. 3. Methods of Apportionment of Joint Costs: The generally accepted cost apportionment methods are of two principal types. They are broadly, Market Value Bases: Bases assumed to measure the ability to absorb joint costs, where the resulting product costs are related to some market value of the products. Under this method, Joint cost allocations are made based on the individual products ability to absorb, as indicated by the sales prices. While choosing a selling price, it is important to choose a representative period considering the normal cycle f fluctuations. Such a representative figure may be the daily average of the past month or quarterly average as may be appropriate. In case the products are sold to different markets, the adjusted market value, eliminating freight and brokerage or commission elements or any other cost is to be taken. Horned rightly points out that market based measure are difficult to use in the context of rate regulation. It is circular reasoning to use selling process as a basis for selling prices (rates) and at the same time use selling prices to allocate the cost on which prices (rates) are based. To void this circular reasoning the physical measures method may be used in rate regulation environment. Physical Unit Bases: Where individual products are from a common input, and none of the products, can be categorized as a by-product, this method is followed. Under this method, the Joint costs are allocated to individual products on some physical measurement basis, biz. Weight, volume, or some other common unit used to measure output. (Egg: calorific content. ) This method is suitable under circumstances where the units of measurement of the final products are the same or capable of being measured in similar units. In industries where Joint products emerge in different physical state and are therefore measured in differing physical units, a problem arise in establishing a common denominator. However, even in case where the outputs emerges as solids, liquids and gases, a common unit or physical co-efficient such as weight, can normally be found as a conversion factor (the weight of a gas is calculated given the volume, temperature and pressure). Another form of physical unit basis is the weighted average method based on pre- determined standards. Some technical estimation is used to reduce all output to a moon denominator. The weights may possibly be based on size of units, time consumed in making them, material consumption etc. The actual numbers of output the Joint cost apportionment is based. Cost drivers as a base: The development and implementation of Activity Based Costing in many enterprises have made available cost drivers, as an integral part of the Cost Management System. Therefore, the cost drivers can be used as a logical basis for cost allocation. 4. 4. Market value basis 4. 4. 1 . Apportionment of Joint cost on the basis of sales value: The apportionment of mint costs on the basis sales value of the products will be followed when no other rational basis for apportionment of Joint cost is available and the Joint products are sold without any further processing at split off point.

Diversities in reproductive modes and strategies amongst various reptile species The WritePass Journal

Diversities in reproductive modes and strategies amongst various reptile species Abstract Diversities in reproductive modes and strategies amongst various reptile species AbstractIntroductionReproductive cyclesSpermatogenesis and oogenesisCopulation and FertilizationEgg shellsOvoviviparityParthenogenesisParental body conditionReproductive behaviourParental careReproductive effort as a life history traitEnergy expenditure per progenyOffspring sizeSex determinationEnvironmental factors that affect reproductionConclusionsReferencesRelated Abstract In this paper we look at reptile reproduction and the how the different factors and processes involved vary in different species. We look at: Reproductive cycles Spermatogenesis and oogenesis Copulation and Fertilization Egg shells Ovoviviparity Viviparity Parthenogenesis Parental body condition Reproductive behaviour Parental care Reproductive effort as a life history trait Energy expenditure per progeny Offspring size Sex determination Environmental factors that affect reproduction Introduction Reproduction is a hugely important aspect of conservation, and with 106 species of reptile being classed as â€Å"Critically Endangered† on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species [1], every bit of knowledge could be useful for preventing a species becoming extinct. Reproduction is highly varied amongst the different species of reptile, and the three main reproductive modes are oviparity, ovoviviparity and viviparity. All the different modes and methods stem from the unique evolutionary challenges that each different species has encountered, having to adapt its reproductive processes to avoid extinction. Even amongst species that have similar reproductive modes, there are distinct variations in anatomy, physiology and behaviour, ranging from the obscure to the ridiculous, from self-fertilising, all-female lizard species, to â€Å"living fossils† that mate by cloacal apposition, due to the male’s lack of a penis. Other, less unusual, variations occur in reproductive cycles, clutch size, mating and parental behaviour. Reproductive cycles For reproduction to be successful, both the males and females need to be behaviourally and physiologically capable and ready to mate and reproduce. Reptiles tend to exhibit 3 different types of reproductive cycle : Associated cycle Dissociated cycle Continuous cycle Associated cycles are common and are frequently found in species that live in temperate zones and seasonally tropical environments, as these regions have relatively long periods suitable for reproduction . In species with an associated cycle, oogenesis and spermatogenesis are initiated simultaneously. High levels of sex hormones present tend to be associated with gamete maturation, mating and fertilization . An example is the green anole, Anolis carolinensis, from southeastern United States. In these, male and female gonads develop simultaneously in the spring, mating and egg production occur in the summer, and both male and female gonads regress in the autumn . Dissociated cycles occur in viviparous species that live in areas where there is a short breeding season, and the best time for mating may not necessarily be the best time for production of young . An example is the red-sided garter snakes, Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis. These mate after emerging from hibernation in the spring, but the gonads are not fully functional and sex steroids are at a low level. The sperm that was used in the mating was produced the previous summer and was stored in the male’s vas deferens. The female’s eggs mature during the summer, and become fertilized by the stored sperm from the spring mating [4]. This allows mating to occur at denning, when the males and females are together, and allows the snake to use the rest of its active time to mature and gestate [4, 6]. Continuous reproductive cycles allow the animal to reproduce at any point throughout the breeding season [5]. They commonly occur in species that live in tropical habitats . An example is the Amazonian Basin teiid, Neusticurus ecpleopus, where males have â€Å"mature spermatozoa in the right testis and epididymis during every month of the year†Ã‚   and so can reproduce all year round. Spermatogenesis and oogenesis Spermatogenesis in reptiles is similar to that of most other vertebrates . Spermatogenesis occurs in the reptile’s testes; however, it has been noted that reptilian germ cells are not organised into â€Å"consistent cellular associations† , and spermatids can be grouped with others from different mitotic and meiotic generations. In the six-lined racerunner, Aspidoscelis sexlineatus, spermatids from the male’s vas deferens have bent midpieces, whereas spermatids from the female’s oviducts have straight midpieces. This indicates that the final stage of maturation of the spermatids occurs in the female’s oviduct after copulation . Spermatogenesis in temperate species is limited to summer, when it is warmer and food more abundant. Therefore energy is more readily available for spermatogenesis, which is metabolically demanding . In contrast, spermatogenesis is a continuous process in tropical reptiles . Reptilian oogenesis occurs in the ovaries, which are the site of yolk deposition [12]. Vitellogenesis occurs in the maternal liver, and yolk consists of glycogen, lipoproteins and phosphorylated proteins [6]. The ova is released from the ovary surface and enters the oviduct at the ostium, the oviduct’s anterior opening [6]. Albumin deposition occurs in the oviduct and at a location which is dependent on species. Crocodilians and chelonians have albumin deposited on the ovum in the tube section of the oviduct, whereas in squamate reptiles it is deposited in the posterior part of the infundibulum . Copulation and Fertilization All reptile species have internal fertilization, but can accomplish this in different ways, depending on anatomy, environment and other factors . Sphenodontids, such as tuatara from New Zealand, first perform a conspicuous courtship, followed by copulation. They copulate by a process of cloacal apposition, as the males lack a distinctive intromittent organ ]. Some species, such as lacertid lizards   and all snakes, have a fully paired reproductive system, including intromittent organs, known as the hemipenes. They are independent and set on either side of the midline . The hemipenes develop as paired evaginations from the back of the cloaca and, when flaccid, they are inverted, but in order to mate, they fill with blood and evert . It is possible to identify species of a colubrid snake from the size, shape and weight of the hemipenes . The common garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis, favours the right-hand hemipenis, much like humans being lefthanded or righthanded. The right hemipenis is wider and longer than the left . Male chelonians have a penis with a single â€Å"midline groove that lies between two longitudinal ridges†. These ridges allow the penis to engorge with blood when mating. The penis is not associated with the urinary system, and used purely for reproduction . After the male reptile has ejaculated, the females of many reptilian species can store the sperm if the reproductive cycle of the male and female do not coincide . In snakes, mating can occur several months in advance and the females can store the sperm in the infundibulum; an example is the South American rattlesnake, Crotalus durissus. Female lizards typically store the sperm in the utero-vaginal transition of the oviduct, as seen in the little brown skink, Scincella lateralis . Fertilization occurs when the ova enter the oviduct and meet the sperm . Egg shells Many species of reptile are oviparous and lay eggs, which can be divided into 3 main groups: Flexible-shelled eggs with little or no calcareous layer Flexible-shelled eggs with a thick, well-developed calcareous layer Rigid-shelled eggs with a well-developed calcareous layer The structure and thickness of the shell membrane and the mineral layer varies between species . Most squamate reptiles produce eggs that have a very flexible shell ; some even lack the calcareous mineral layer. The desert iguana, Dipsosaurus dorsalis, has only a fibrous shell membrane . Although the green iguana, Iguana iguana, also is missing the calcareous layer, it still retains â€Å"isolated crystals of calcareous material among the fibres of the shell membrane† . Some squamate reptile eggs may retain the calcareous layer, as in A. carolinensis, the eggs of which have a thin calcareous crust , organised into an irregular array of plaques, â€Å"with underlying fibrous layers of the membrane being visible between the plaques† . Turtles, including chelonids, chelydrids and most emydids, produce eggs that have a flexible shell, with a well-defined calcareous layer roughly the same thickness as the shell membrane . In sea turtles, the calcareous material forms a loosely organized open matrix, whereas in emydids and chelydrids, the eggshell has calcareous material that is much more highly structured . Rigid eggshells are laid by a number of different species, including: Crocodilians Some chelonians Many species of gecko Rigid eggs have a thick, well-developed calcareous layer forming the majority of the shell . For the embryo to survive inside the egg, the shell needs to be partially permeable allowing gaseous exchange. Early in development, the first gaseous exchange occurs in the yolk sac, and later in the chorioallantois . The majority of gaseous exchange occurs after oviposition, in the air in the nest chamber. The shells can be partially permeable to water, and different species manage this in various ways. In some, the egg will contain all the water required for embryo development at oviposition, as seen in: Crocodilians Tuataras Some turtle species Most squamate reptile eggs have a low water content at oviposition, and need to absorb water from the environment for successful development of the embryo. Ovoviviparity Ovoviviparity occurs when the embryo develops inside an egg, but the egg is retained inside the mother until ready to hatch . Despite the embryo being retained, there is no well-developed placenta and the remains of a shell can be found during early embryonic development . In the spiny lizard, Sceloporus jarrovi, ovulation and fertilization occur between late November and early December, but embryonic development is suspended for 4 months in the blastoderm stage. At this point, the embryo is encased in a shell and nutrients are supplied by the egg yolk. After development continues, placental formation occurs, and the yolk plays a lesser role. â€Å"Delayed development ensures an adequate food supply for the young at parturition and eliminates embryonic development during winter when adult food intake is limited† . The viviparous lizard, Lacerta vivipara, has some populations that are ovoviviparous, and these have â€Å"substantial hormone leakage between mother and offspring and between fetuses†, and so maternal hormone levels and stress are likely to have a significant impact on the embryonic development. Stress has been shown to influence thermal regulation , which can affect sexual determination of the offspring . Viviparity A viviparous reptile will retain the embryos in the oviduct until the neonate is fully formed and is born. The majority of reptiles are oviparous, but there are around 100 species of lizard and snake that are viviparous, including: Alligator lizards, Elgaria coerulea Boa constrictor, Boa constrictor Many geckos Many species of skink Turtle-headed sea snakes, Emydocephalus ijimae As there is a large variety of viviparous reptiles, it is not surprising that they exhibit â€Å"all grades of embryonic nutrition† , ranging from an almost total dependence on the stores of egg yolk, to a total reliance on maternal nutrient transfer. The South American skink, Mabuya heathi, is viviparous and produces newly ovulated eggs that are around 1mm in diameter. The embryo obtains more than 99% of its nutrition from placental transfer from the mother. Pregnancy lasts 8-12 months and the majority of the placental nutrient provision occurs in the last 3 months of gestation. There is no agreed theory why only squamate reptiles show viviparity and none in chelonians or crocodilians. Recent theories suggest that it evolved in colder climates, as the embryo can benefit from maternal thermoregulatory behaviour, such as basking, allowing the embryo to develop faster . This does not mean that viviparity is restricted to cooler regions, and a number of viviparous species of the genus Sceloporus, exist in both warm and cool regions of varying altitude in the south-west of America and in Mexico . Parthenogenesis The majority of reptile species reproduce sexually, but a small number of species are able to reproduce parthenogenetically. Asexual reptiles often have three common features: they originate from the hybridization of two species, reproduction is from clonal inheritance and all are female . Unisexual reptiles were first noted in 1935, when it was noted that there had never been any male fox gecko, Hemidactylus garnoti, observed . Parthenogenesis has been reported in over 30 species of squamate reptile, mostly xantusiids, gekkonids, lacertids and teiids . There is only one species of snake that is parthenogenetic, the Brahminy blind snake, Ramphotyphlops braminus. Parthenogenesis reduces the costs of reproduction, as there is no energy invested in the males, and each individual female can reproduce independently. It has the disadvantage that the progeny will not easily adapt to changes in environment. The parthenogenic females produce diploid eggs from unreduced gametes, so all offspring are genetically identical to the parent . Unisexual species occur as a result of hybridization, and â€Å"each unisexual vertebrate species combines at its inception much of the genetic diversity of two different sexual species† . There are no intermediate forms, backcross genome combinations or hybrid zones that involve the parental taxa . Parthenogenetic species do not need to reproduce sexually, but sexual behaviour does still occur. Some parthenogenetic species of whiptail lizard, Cnemidophorus, have been seen to mount others in pseudocopulation . This behaviour is almost identical to that of Cnemidophori lizards that are not parthenogenetic . This occurs under crowded conditions and probably is not related to reproduction . Parental body condition Reproduction is energy-expensive for most species, but the degree varies with species and gender . â€Å"Capital breeders† rely on energy that has been stored as fats or proteins, rather than relying on energy intake . This suggests that there is a threshold amount of energy that is required to be stored before the animal is capable of reproduction . In reptiles, it is often associated with ambush predators, such as the European asp, Vipera aspis. Only females have an energy threshold that is required prior to breeding, and female V. aspis will not attempt to reproduce until â€Å"they exceed a certain minimal level of body reserves for vitellogenesis† . In males, there is no energy-dependent threshold, and in V. aspis, there is no noticeable difference in body condition between reproductive and non-reproductive males . However, it has been noted that there is a decrease in feeding behaviour in male vipers during the breeding season, as males devote more time and energy to finding a mate. Captive breeding ofSaint Croix’s anole, Anolis acutus, in the Caribbean, has shown that an increase in food intake has no effect on the reproductive effort of females, but it did cause an increase for males. Reproductive effort is calculated as 100 x gonad weight / lean body weight . Another reptile where body size and condition show no effect on reproduction and mean egg clutch size is Rodrigues lava lizard, Eurolophosaurus nanuzae. In this species, female reproduction is instead influenced by photoperiod, long-term precipitation and temperature. â€Å"Income breeders† do not store energy for reproduction; instead reproduction is fuelled by feeding . It is usually a linear relationship, where an increase in the energy available results in an increase in reproductive output . The Oriental garden lizard, Calotes versicolor, can be found in regions where there is an abundance of food. It maintains a store of abdominal body fat, which is used to provide energy for vitellogenesis for the first clutch of the season. After this, they switch to being income breeders and rely on constant daily feeding to produce enough energy for any consequent clutches of eggs. Reproductive behaviour Every reptile species has its own specific reproductive behaviour associated with mating, nesting and caring for the young. In the male T. sirtalis parietalis, the choice of female is influenced by the characteristics and attributes of the female. In garter snakes, it has been shown that larger, heavier females are more desirable to the males and attract more courtship than smaller, thinner snakes]. It can be estimated that the intensity of the mating behaviour in most male reptiles is influenced by three factors: Phenotypic aspects that influence ability to compete Potential fitness benefits from mating Intensity of competition for mating Male T. sirtalis parietalis display most courtship behaviour when alone with a female, and if there are many males all competing for the same female then they show a significant reduction in courtship behaviour . In other reptile species, the male can have displays that could consist of coloured skin patches and loud calling or unusual activities, such as in the â€Å"push-up displays† of the male side-blotched lizard, Uta stansburiana . The disadvantage of this display is a reduced endurance in the leg muscle, which may be needed to escape a predator. Male ornate crevice-dragons, Ctenophorus ornatus, have brightly coloured patches of skin on their chests. These can be used to predict the size of a male’s territory and how many females live in that territory . Ritual combat allows males to compete for dominance prior to mating, and the winner often gets the female. These battles consist of entwining with and pushing the opponent to the ground to subdue him. This is seen in a number of species, including: Australian blacksnakes, Pseudechis porphyriacus Western rattlesnake, Crotalus viridis Many colubrids, including Chironius bicarinatus   Tuatara, Sphenodon punctatus Snouted cobras will refuse to mate unless they have performed a combat ritual with another male . It is rare that the female has a choice in partners, and in C. ornatus, the females show no preference amongst different males, despite the varying intensity and colour of the male’s display patches . This could mean that the colours are for male dominance competitions rather than luring a mate. Female choice has only been conclusively proven in a few species, including Lacerta agilis and several Anolis lizards . In leopard geckos, Eublepharis macularius, the sexual and agonistic behaviour can be affected by the gonadal sex and the incubation temperature, as they both affect sex steroid hormone release . Female leopard geckos that were incubated at an intermediate temperature were less â€Å"attractive† to the male geckos than females that were incubated at warmer temperatures . Parental care The benefit of parental care over a clutch of eggs could be to increase the survival rate of the eggs. The parental care may be in the form of defending the nest site, egg brooding by muscular thermogenesis or egg attendance. Different reptile species display differing amounts of parental care. The majority do not exhibit any parental care, such as turtles. Those exhibiting parental care include: Crocodilians Long-tailed skinks, Mabuya longicaudata Skinks of the genus Eumeces Pythons Asian forest tortoise, Manouria emys   Female crocodilians give large amounts of parental care to both the eggs and the young after hatching. The females will remain close to the nest and defend it from potential predators. The male is not present when the eggs are laid but there may still be some male role in nest protection. Young Nile crocodiles, Crocodylus niloticus, vocalise while still in the egg and continue to do so after hatching . These calls lead the mother to the nest, who then opens it, help the young escape from the shell and carries the hatched young to water . After hatching, the young may also give distress calls which would stimulate defensive behaviour by the adults . It is possible that the young could be calling to each other, to synchronise hatching and ensure survival from predators . Snakes exhibiting parental care usually do so in the form of egg attendance and defensive behaviour, usually in species that are either large or venomous, as these can easily defend the nests. Pythons participate in egg brooding which keeps the eggs warm by muscular thermogenesis, but in Children’s pythons, Antaresia childreni, excessive brooding can smother the eggs, causing hypoxia due to the partially permeable shells. This can give â€Å"smaller, slower and weaker† offspring than the offspring of pythons that do not egg-brood. Reproductive effort as a life history trait The amount of effort expended in reproduction can affect the survival of the animal or can affect future reproduction, and so a trade-off is required   In squamate reptiles, survival costs often result from the â€Å"risk of death associated with a reproductive event† , an example being that a gravid female has a reduced mobility and is easily predated upon. Reproduction requires increased energy and so the animal will require a higher food intake, both before copulation and during pregnancy. The foraging or hunting may make them more at risk from predators . Reproductive costs arise because the animal devotes energy to its current reproductive bout. This energy cannot be used for growth of the animal and will not give a higher fecundity during a later reproductive bout . In squamate reptiles, survival costs are considered more important than reproductive costs, and the trade-off between present and future fecundities may not be significant for many species The counter arguments to this are that â€Å"variation in the form of trade-offs relating offspring size and survival substantially affect relationships among clutch size, relative clutch mass, and lifetime reproductive success†, and that the way in which adult mortality is simulated in the mathematical model can significantly affect the conclusions about the potential fecundity trade-offs . The environment may affect the reproductive effort, destabilising the trade-offs. An example of this would be an individual that is in a poor condition, which could result in it getting a poor territory and suffering increased mortality or reduced fecundity as a result . Both survival and reproduction costs can be seen in the tree lizard, Urosaurus ornatus in New Mexico, which lays two clutches of eggs during the summer. It has been shown that reducing the eggs in the first clutch, by surgically reducing the number of follicles, resulted in females that had a higher survival rates, and larger second clutches . Many species with short life spans tend to have multiple clutches each year and have a high clutch mass to female mass ratio. However, many species with long life spans tend to be more restrained with their reproductive activities . Energy expenditure per progeny The energy invested in an egg by the mother has an effect on the size and health of the neonate in oviparous reptiles . Females can produce either large clutches of many small eggs or small clutches of large eggs . Female veiled chameleon, Chamaeleo calyptratus produce clutches of 20-40 eggs, each weighing 1.5g . Female Fiji banded iguana, Brachylophus fasciatus are the same size but produce clutches of 3-4 eggs, each weighing 10g . In some species, the eggs are smaller than optimum due to the structural constraint of the size of the female’s pelvis. The eggs of the painted turtle, Chrysemys picta are proportional to the width of the pelvis opening, so larger females lay larger eggs . By contrast, all lizards in the genus Anolis produce only one egg in each clutch, and this egg is sized so that it is the largest that can possibly fit through the pelvis . In several species of lizard, the clutch size is fixed and â€Å"the female is not able to divide the energy invested during the single reproductive bout into more offspring†. These species include: Anolis Gekkonidae Dibamidae Some skinks The size of the egg generally increases with the size of the species, but it is not directly proportional. Larger species have smaller offspring relative to their adult body size than do small species . Some species that have variable clutch sizes include: Crocodilians Tuataras Most turtles Many squamate retiles The total number of offspring in a clutch is ultimately dependent on the number of follicles produced, the proportion of follicles that become vitellogenic and the incidence of atresia of vitellogenic follicles prior to ovulation . It has been noted that other factors can affect the size of the clutch produced. An increased environmental temperature earlier in the year has been shown to lead to earlier breeding, as well as giving an increased clutch size, possibly due to â€Å"changes in the reproductive cycle and energy expenditure† . Offspring size All offspring produced by oviparous reptiles have characteristics that are â€Å"highly dependent upon the physical conditions that the embryo experiences prior to hatching† , such as its time of hatching, performance abilities,   size, shape, behaviour and thermoregulatory preferences. There is an inverse relationship between offspring size and clutch size, but this can be influenced by maternal body size . Studies into the spiny lizard, Sceloporus virgatus, have shown that there is no correlation between egg mass and maternal body mass . This is different to most turtle species, where the maximum possible egg size is limited by the diameter of the pelvic opening . Snakes are not constrained by the pelvic girdle, and so there is a positive correlation between the width of the egg laid and the female’s mass. Eggs in the same clutch tend to give uniform-sized offspring. There are rarely overly large or small offspring, possibly because eggs have been exposed to similar hydric and thermal conditions throughout embryogenesis, and so have all developed in the same way . The phenotype of the reptile hatching out of the egg can be significantly influenced by the â€Å"thermal regimes selected by the gravid female immediately prior to laying†, as well as food availability to the gravid female. If the female lays large numbers of eggs, then the energetic and nutritional variance within the clutch is   low for reptiles, compared with birds . Sex determination In reptile species, gender can be determined either by genetics or temperature In temperature-dependent sex determination of species that lay eggs, the temperature of the eggs is controlled by the nest temperature, as with egg-brooding pythons . In viviparous species, the temperature is controlled by basking. The thermoregulatory history of viviparous reptiles can affect a number of characteristics of the offspring, including: Size Phenotype Survival Locomotor performance Behaviour At temperatures that produce females, the enzyme aromatase is induced and converts testosterone to oestradiol, which binds to oestrogen receptors, triggering feminisation. At temperatures that produce males, the enzyme 5ÃŽ ±-reductase is induced and converts testosterone to dihydrotestosterone, which binds to androgen receptors, triggering differentiation of testes . In snapping turtles, eggs developing at â€Å"female producing temperatures† have a hormonal environment in which oestradiol concentrations decline at a slower rate than those at â€Å"mixed sex temperatures† or â€Å"male producing temperatures† . There are three patterns of temperature-dependent sex determination: Males at cool temperatures, females at warm temperatures Females at cool temperatures, males at warm temperatures Females at coolest and warmest temperatures, males at intermediate temperatures The range of temperatures that can give both sexes is typically only 1 °C and varies for each species. The temperature that gives 50% of each sex is known as the â€Å"pivotal temperature† . All crocodilian species exhibit temperature-dependent sex determination . In the black caiman, Caiman latirostris, incubating the eggs at 29-31 °C gives female offspring, and incubating at 33 °C gives male offspring. At 34.5 °C, both male and female are hatched In the American alligator, Alligator mississippiensis, there are three types of nesting site, which all have differing temperatures : Levee  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   ß 34 °C Wet marsh  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   ß 30 °C Dry marsh  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   ß 34 °C on top and 30 °C at peripheries Alligators nesting in wet marshes produce nearly 100% female offspring, and females â€Å"tend to seek a temperature environment that is as close as possible to that of their own incubation† . This gives a skewed sex ratio of nearly 10 female alligators to 1 male. Temperature-dependent sex determination was originally thought to occur exclusively in species that lack sex chromosomes, but it has been shown to co-exist with genetic-dependent sex determination in some species, including geckos and some skinks Environmental factors that affect reproduction It has been shown that environmental and nest temperatures can affect the gender of the hatchlings , and variations in temperature can also affect factors such as foraging, breeding seasons and hibernation . Climate warming in China has been shown to shift the oviposition dates of the Chinese alligator, Alligator sinensis, to earlier in the year, as well as to increase the mean clutch size . Ecological events in the area inhabited by a reptile can also affect the reproduction, and human land-management can be a major factor. The desert horned lizard, Phrynosoma platyrhinos, will prefer to inhabit areas where cattle grazing has occurred, presumably due to an abundance of prey species. This would mean that there would be increased reproductive rates. In southern Texas, burning scrubland in the winter is commonplace, and can have an effect on the reptile populations. â€Å"Winter burning provides an increase in food resources and leads to increased survival of Texas horned lizards, Phrynosoma cornutum, in the second growing season after fire† . In other cases, habitat loss may have an adverse effect on the reproduction of reptiles. In Argentina, deforestation has been shown to have an effect on the Argentine boa constrictor, Boa constrictor occidentalis, particularly causing a decrease in body condition, clutch size and testicular volume . Conclusions Species variations in reptile reproduction may be quite large, with some species able to reproduce at any time throughout the year and others having dissociative reproductive cycles where the female can â€Å"store† the male’s sperm . Other aspects are typically less varied; spermatogenesis and oogenesis are similar in most species . Anatomical species differences can be seen in the structure of the male reproductive organs. Some, such as tuatara lack a penis at all , whereas snakes have two hemipenes . In testudines the penis is used solely for reproduction and is not even connected to the urinary tract . Reptilian life-history traits can vary between species and include clutch size, offspring size and mode of parity. Some reptile species are oviparous and lay eggs, such as the pit viper, Trimeresurus flavoviridis , some oviparous species are even parthenogenetic and all-female. Others are ovoviviparous, like S. jarrovi and others are viviparous and produce live young, such as M. heathi . Reproductive behaviour also varies between species and can help the reptile select a suitable mate   and parental care can help ensure the survival of the offspring, even if it is detrimental to the health of the parent . 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