Termpaper on Joint product costing Essay Example

Termpaper on Joint product costing Essay A new paradigm has been emerged in the present industrial sector where a manufacturing organization uses a single process to produce more than one product. This paradigm adds complexity in the simultaneous production of more than one product from a Joint process. Their determination at the cost of such products, individually, hence posses a difficult task to the cost accountant especially because they are of such varied nature characterized by many varieties. Despite difficulty it is possibly essential to make a fair and equitable allocation of cost to each product nice this is critically important not only for stock valuation and income determination but also increasingly for assessment of excise duty, transfer pricing etc, and also for divisional profitability etc. This study concentrates to explore the area not so much conceptually, but more as a practical guide to illustrate some of the methods adopted in practice by the manufactures. We will write a custom essay sample on Termpaper on Joint product costing specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Termpaper on Joint product costing specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Termpaper on Joint product costing specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The methods fall under two broad categories a) Market value basis and b) Physical measurement basis. The market value basis adopts the accepted cost concept of what the product can bear while the physical measurement basis is based on physical measures as weight, illume etc. Literature survey has highlighted certain other methods as techno commercial factor evaluation basis and input based cost driver basis. Robert Kaplan and Antonym Atkinson have given an illustration as how the Joint and by-products costing method can be used as a tool in the resource allocation process. The paper aims to generate further discussion, with illustration from more industries to help formulate proper guidelines on this complex issue of Joint and by-product costing. 2. 0: Acknowledgement Going through various sources of information we arrived at the generally accepted cost accounting practices where the vital inputs on concepts along with practical examples were compiled from the articles and textbooks of reputed authors as stated in the references. We are grateful to Tanzania Hues, Assistant Professor, department of Accounting Information Systems, who germinated the idea of bringing out such a special paper on Joint Product and By-product Costing. We would like to convey our heartiest gratitude to the entire information provider for their valuable suggestions, information and contributions that have helped us much in preparing this report. 3. : Origin of the report In case of identifying, allocating and apportioning common costs to several products or output services the multi-product or multi-process and multi service industries always face an uncertainty. The final product or service cost will reflect the full cost only if these common costs are allocated or apportioned in some way to the individual final product. In the case of process industries, where the process flow is common up to a stage and then segregates into two or more process lines to produce more than one product then the problem of allocation or apportionment of common r Joint cost becomes significant. The essence of Joint product or by-product costing lays in the allocation or apportionment of Joint processing cost to the individual products in as equitable a manner as possible. Although the allocation or apportionment of Joint costs to determine the full cost of individual products may not be of much help from the point of view of management decision-making, it is very much essential for external financial reporting, reporting under various statutory requirements, valuation for tax legislation and also for valuation of inventories for horn period profit determination. The phenomenon of a production process, producing simultaneously, more than one product could be observed in a wide variety of industries, For example: Coal mining washing and Coke production resulting in the production of Coal, Coke, Gas, Tar and Ammonia. Petroleum refining resulting in the production of Petrol, Kerosene, Diesel, Furnace oil etc. In this industry a very large number of Joint and byproducts occur in cracking or refining crude oil. Agricultural Product industries such as vegetable oil crushing of oil seeds resulting in production of oil and cake. From the process of refining oil, soap stock arises which could be further processed into soap and allied products. In Milk industry, the three joint products are Cream, Liquid Milk and Skim. The cream is again processed into Butter and ghee. The liquid milk and skim is processed to produce whole milk, full cream milk and standard milk. 3. : Purpose of the report The objectives of this term paper is to identify the principles to be followed in the recognition of products as Joint product or by-products and to prescribe some generally accepted methods to determine more accurate and reliable cost of ND uniform basis to provide better transparency in the ascertaining the cost of Joint and by-products. The ascertainment of the cost of Joint products and by-product can be used for the following purposes: (I) Uniform basis of Valuation of manufactured products, Work -in-pro cess and intermediate products. For assessment of excise duty and other value based taxes relating to Joint products and by-products. (iii) Assessment of value of specific products under various measures such as anti- dumping, transfer pricing etc. , (v) Determining the value and responding to regulatory authorities for Joint products or services. V) Measuring product performance and internal reporting for segment profitability. 3. 3: Methodology: In order to prepare this term paper we have applied our classroom knowledge as well as taken help from different writers books preferably from the book of Cost Accounting by Charles T. Horned et al. This term paper also comprises the combined effort of all group members. We have tried to present the concept of Joint production cost in variety of organizational situation and how this cost can be allocated to different products from the Joint production process. Along with Joint cost ND its allocation we have also tried to present how the by product from a production process can be recognized and presented in the financial statements specially in the income statement of the company. 3. 4: Limitation of the Paper The report may encounter the shortcomings due to the following reasons: Lack of practical knowledge to link up with theories. Probability of skipping any material items. Dependency on the secondary information. Time constraints 3. 5: Terminology used in the term paper Joint-products: Two or more product that have high total sales value compared with he total sales values of other products yielded by Joint production process (Horned) or in other words -Two or more products separated in the course of processing, each having a sufficiently high sellable value to merit recognition as a main product. Example: Ethylene and Propylene arising from the cracking of Naphtha. By-product: A product, which is secondary to the main product and obtained during the course of manufacture of recognized main product. It is called a by-product because of the relatively lower importance it has as compared with the main product or products. By-product cost is commonly regarded as difficult to determine. By-product is usually subjected to further processing after separation from the main product, if such processing will increase the value added or promote the sale of the main product. For example, in a Petroleum Refinery, gas was earlier considered as a by-product. Now, it has assumed importance like petrol, diesel, etc. And it is being treated as a Joint product. Scrap: Residual material left over when making a product. Waste: Discarded substances having no significant value (as distinct from scrap)- ECMA. Joint Cost: Joint cost are defined as common cost of facilities or services employed in the output of two or more simultaneously produced or otherwise closely related operations, commodities or service. Split off point: The point in the common production process at which the separate products are identifiable. There may be process and the total numbers of products that emerge from the process. 4. 0: Body of the report 4. 1: The nature of Joint Product 4. 1. 1 . Fixed and variable proportions Although Joint products have a definite quantitative relationship to each other, this relationship may take different forms. The nature of the Joint products output can either be in fixed or variable proportions. The relationship between the products is fixed if an increase in the output of one product of a group results in a proportionate increase in the output of the other products. In contrast, if the increase in output of one product results in either a decrease or has no effect on the output of one or more of the remaining products then the relationship between the outputs is one of variable proportions. This variation in output proportions may only be controlled within certain limits and only arises in certain processes. 4. 1. 2. Intermediate and final products: Joint products arise from a common process or series of processes, the latter giving rise to intermediate products. Intermediate products can be defined as those products to be further treated and processed to produce main product, where the main products in a multi-purpose operation may take the form of intermediate products at a certain stages of production and finished products at the final stage of production. 4. 1. 3. Joint and Separation costs: The fundamental feature of Joint product is that they incur Joint cost up to a certain stage of production, known as the split off point, where they become recognizable as operate products. The costs incurred in the Joint process cannot be separately traced to the individual product output Subsequent to the split-off point any cost incurred e. G. The additional processing costs, can be identified with specific products and may be termed separable or attributable cost. For a cost to be separable, it must be possible to trace it with reasonable certainty to a single product. 4. 2. Joint Product By-product costing principles 4. 2. 1 . There are two basic approaches to costing of Joint product and by-products, which are given below: Joint Product Approach: Under this approach, more than one reduce is treated as Joint product and the Joint processing costs are allocated between the products on an appropriate basis. Main Product / By-product Approach: Under this approach, only one product will be given the status of a main product and all other products arising from the process will be treated as by-products. In this method, the Joint costs are not allocated between the products instead; the net revenue (sales value less further processing expenses, selling expenses, etc. F any) generated from the products is credited to the Joint costs and the remaining Joint cost is totally absorbed by the main product. . 2. 2. Recognition off product as Joint product or by-product: There are no hard and fast rules to determine whether a product is a Joint product or by-product. Normally, products which are incidental to the produc tion of main products and products which are insignificant in value product changes from by-product to main product or vice versa due to a number of factors like changes in market price, competition, demand or technology may suggest a re-classification. Therefore, the classification between the main product and by- product has to be reviewed continuously. 4. 2. 3. Identification of Joint and By- Products: Recognition of Joint products and by-products is purely by relative commercial values. Further, such relative values are not permanent as their relative importance of Joint and by-products is evanescent in nature, as can be seen by the following two examples. In the sugar industry, till about four decades back, press mud was Just a waste product of nuisance value, that needed continuous disposal at additional costs or else it will create contamination. Subsequently, through research, it was found that the press mud contained rich nutrients which stimulate plant growth, as a result f which it became a commercially valuable product. 4. 3. Methods of Apportionment of Joint Costs: The generally accepted cost apportionment methods are of two principal types. They are broadly, Market Value Bases: Bases assumed to measure the ability to absorb joint costs, where the resulting product costs are related to some market value of the products. Under this method, Joint cost allocations are made based on the individual products ability to absorb, as indicated by the sales prices. While choosing a selling price, it is important to choose a representative period considering the normal cycle f fluctuations. Such a representative figure may be the daily average of the past month or quarterly average as may be appropriate. In case the products are sold to different markets, the adjusted market value, eliminating freight and brokerage or commission elements or any other cost is to be taken. Horned rightly points out that market based measure are difficult to use in the context of rate regulation. It is circular reasoning to use selling process as a basis for selling prices (rates) and at the same time use selling prices to allocate the cost on which prices (rates) are based. To void this circular reasoning the physical measures method may be used in rate regulation environment. Physical Unit Bases: Where individual products are from a common input, and none of the products, can be categorized as a by-product, this method is followed. Under this method, the Joint costs are allocated to individual products on some physical measurement basis, biz. Weight, volume, or some other common unit used to measure output. (Egg: calorific content. ) This method is suitable under circumstances where the units of measurement of the final products are the same or capable of being measured in similar units. In industries where Joint products emerge in different physical state and are therefore measured in differing physical units, a problem arise in establishing a common denominator. However, even in case where the outputs emerges as solids, liquids and gases, a common unit or physical co-efficient such as weight, can normally be found as a conversion factor (the weight of a gas is calculated given the volume, temperature and pressure). Another form of physical unit basis is the weighted average method based on pre- determined standards. Some technical estimation is used to reduce all output to a moon denominator. The weights may possibly be based on size of units, time consumed in making them, material consumption etc. The actual numbers of output the Joint cost apportionment is based. Cost drivers as a base: The development and implementation of Activity Based Costing in many enterprises have made available cost drivers, as an integral part of the Cost Management System. Therefore, the cost drivers can be used as a logical basis for cost allocation. 4. 4. Market value basis 4. 4. 1 . Apportionment of Joint cost on the basis of sales value: The apportionment of mint costs on the basis sales value of the products will be followed when no other rational basis for apportionment of Joint cost is available and the Joint products are sold without any further processing at split off point.

Diversities in reproductive modes and strategies amongst various reptile species The WritePass Journal

Diversities in reproductive modes and strategies amongst various reptile species Abstract Diversities in reproductive modes and strategies amongst various reptile species AbstractIntroductionReproductive cyclesSpermatogenesis and oogenesisCopulation and FertilizationEgg shellsOvoviviparityParthenogenesisParental body conditionReproductive behaviourParental careReproductive effort as a life history traitEnergy expenditure per progenyOffspring sizeSex determinationEnvironmental factors that affect reproductionConclusionsReferencesRelated Abstract In this paper we look at reptile reproduction and the how the different factors and processes involved vary in different species. We look at: Reproductive cycles Spermatogenesis and oogenesis Copulation and Fertilization Egg shells Ovoviviparity Viviparity Parthenogenesis Parental body condition Reproductive behaviour Parental care Reproductive effort as a life history trait Energy expenditure per progeny Offspring size Sex determination Environmental factors that affect reproduction Introduction Reproduction is a hugely important aspect of conservation, and with 106 species of reptile being classed as â€Å"Critically Endangered† on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species [1], every bit of knowledge could be useful for preventing a species becoming extinct. Reproduction is highly varied amongst the different species of reptile, and the three main reproductive modes are oviparity, ovoviviparity and viviparity. All the different modes and methods stem from the unique evolutionary challenges that each different species has encountered, having to adapt its reproductive processes to avoid extinction. Even amongst species that have similar reproductive modes, there are distinct variations in anatomy, physiology and behaviour, ranging from the obscure to the ridiculous, from self-fertilising, all-female lizard species, to â€Å"living fossils† that mate by cloacal apposition, due to the male’s lack of a penis. Other, less unusual, variations occur in reproductive cycles, clutch size, mating and parental behaviour. Reproductive cycles For reproduction to be successful, both the males and females need to be behaviourally and physiologically capable and ready to mate and reproduce. Reptiles tend to exhibit 3 different types of reproductive cycle : Associated cycle Dissociated cycle Continuous cycle Associated cycles are common and are frequently found in species that live in temperate zones and seasonally tropical environments, as these regions have relatively long periods suitable for reproduction . In species with an associated cycle, oogenesis and spermatogenesis are initiated simultaneously. High levels of sex hormones present tend to be associated with gamete maturation, mating and fertilization . An example is the green anole, Anolis carolinensis, from southeastern United States. In these, male and female gonads develop simultaneously in the spring, mating and egg production occur in the summer, and both male and female gonads regress in the autumn . Dissociated cycles occur in viviparous species that live in areas where there is a short breeding season, and the best time for mating may not necessarily be the best time for production of young . An example is the red-sided garter snakes, Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis. These mate after emerging from hibernation in the spring, but the gonads are not fully functional and sex steroids are at a low level. The sperm that was used in the mating was produced the previous summer and was stored in the male’s vas deferens. The female’s eggs mature during the summer, and become fertilized by the stored sperm from the spring mating [4]. This allows mating to occur at denning, when the males and females are together, and allows the snake to use the rest of its active time to mature and gestate [4, 6]. Continuous reproductive cycles allow the animal to reproduce at any point throughout the breeding season [5]. They commonly occur in species that live in tropical habitats . An example is the Amazonian Basin teiid, Neusticurus ecpleopus, where males have â€Å"mature spermatozoa in the right testis and epididymis during every month of the year†Ã‚   and so can reproduce all year round. Spermatogenesis and oogenesis Spermatogenesis in reptiles is similar to that of most other vertebrates . Spermatogenesis occurs in the reptile’s testes; however, it has been noted that reptilian germ cells are not organised into â€Å"consistent cellular associations† , and spermatids can be grouped with others from different mitotic and meiotic generations. In the six-lined racerunner, Aspidoscelis sexlineatus, spermatids from the male’s vas deferens have bent midpieces, whereas spermatids from the female’s oviducts have straight midpieces. This indicates that the final stage of maturation of the spermatids occurs in the female’s oviduct after copulation . Spermatogenesis in temperate species is limited to summer, when it is warmer and food more abundant. Therefore energy is more readily available for spermatogenesis, which is metabolically demanding . In contrast, spermatogenesis is a continuous process in tropical reptiles . Reptilian oogenesis occurs in the ovaries, which are the site of yolk deposition [12]. Vitellogenesis occurs in the maternal liver, and yolk consists of glycogen, lipoproteins and phosphorylated proteins [6]. The ova is released from the ovary surface and enters the oviduct at the ostium, the oviduct’s anterior opening [6]. Albumin deposition occurs in the oviduct and at a location which is dependent on species. Crocodilians and chelonians have albumin deposited on the ovum in the tube section of the oviduct, whereas in squamate reptiles it is deposited in the posterior part of the infundibulum . Copulation and Fertilization All reptile species have internal fertilization, but can accomplish this in different ways, depending on anatomy, environment and other factors . Sphenodontids, such as tuatara from New Zealand, first perform a conspicuous courtship, followed by copulation. They copulate by a process of cloacal apposition, as the males lack a distinctive intromittent organ ]. Some species, such as lacertid lizards   and all snakes, have a fully paired reproductive system, including intromittent organs, known as the hemipenes. They are independent and set on either side of the midline . The hemipenes develop as paired evaginations from the back of the cloaca and, when flaccid, they are inverted, but in order to mate, they fill with blood and evert . It is possible to identify species of a colubrid snake from the size, shape and weight of the hemipenes . The common garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis, favours the right-hand hemipenis, much like humans being lefthanded or righthanded. The right hemipenis is wider and longer than the left . Male chelonians have a penis with a single â€Å"midline groove that lies between two longitudinal ridges†. These ridges allow the penis to engorge with blood when mating. The penis is not associated with the urinary system, and used purely for reproduction . After the male reptile has ejaculated, the females of many reptilian species can store the sperm if the reproductive cycle of the male and female do not coincide . In snakes, mating can occur several months in advance and the females can store the sperm in the infundibulum; an example is the South American rattlesnake, Crotalus durissus. Female lizards typically store the sperm in the utero-vaginal transition of the oviduct, as seen in the little brown skink, Scincella lateralis . Fertilization occurs when the ova enter the oviduct and meet the sperm . Egg shells Many species of reptile are oviparous and lay eggs, which can be divided into 3 main groups: Flexible-shelled eggs with little or no calcareous layer Flexible-shelled eggs with a thick, well-developed calcareous layer Rigid-shelled eggs with a well-developed calcareous layer The structure and thickness of the shell membrane and the mineral layer varies between species . Most squamate reptiles produce eggs that have a very flexible shell ; some even lack the calcareous mineral layer. The desert iguana, Dipsosaurus dorsalis, has only a fibrous shell membrane . Although the green iguana, Iguana iguana, also is missing the calcareous layer, it still retains â€Å"isolated crystals of calcareous material among the fibres of the shell membrane† . Some squamate reptile eggs may retain the calcareous layer, as in A. carolinensis, the eggs of which have a thin calcareous crust , organised into an irregular array of plaques, â€Å"with underlying fibrous layers of the membrane being visible between the plaques† . Turtles, including chelonids, chelydrids and most emydids, produce eggs that have a flexible shell, with a well-defined calcareous layer roughly the same thickness as the shell membrane . In sea turtles, the calcareous material forms a loosely organized open matrix, whereas in emydids and chelydrids, the eggshell has calcareous material that is much more highly structured . Rigid eggshells are laid by a number of different species, including: Crocodilians Some chelonians Many species of gecko Rigid eggs have a thick, well-developed calcareous layer forming the majority of the shell . For the embryo to survive inside the egg, the shell needs to be partially permeable allowing gaseous exchange. Early in development, the first gaseous exchange occurs in the yolk sac, and later in the chorioallantois . The majority of gaseous exchange occurs after oviposition, in the air in the nest chamber. The shells can be partially permeable to water, and different species manage this in various ways. In some, the egg will contain all the water required for embryo development at oviposition, as seen in: Crocodilians Tuataras Some turtle species Most squamate reptile eggs have a low water content at oviposition, and need to absorb water from the environment for successful development of the embryo. Ovoviviparity Ovoviviparity occurs when the embryo develops inside an egg, but the egg is retained inside the mother until ready to hatch . Despite the embryo being retained, there is no well-developed placenta and the remains of a shell can be found during early embryonic development . In the spiny lizard, Sceloporus jarrovi, ovulation and fertilization occur between late November and early December, but embryonic development is suspended for 4 months in the blastoderm stage. At this point, the embryo is encased in a shell and nutrients are supplied by the egg yolk. After development continues, placental formation occurs, and the yolk plays a lesser role. â€Å"Delayed development ensures an adequate food supply for the young at parturition and eliminates embryonic development during winter when adult food intake is limited† . The viviparous lizard, Lacerta vivipara, has some populations that are ovoviviparous, and these have â€Å"substantial hormone leakage between mother and offspring and between fetuses†, and so maternal hormone levels and stress are likely to have a significant impact on the embryonic development. Stress has been shown to influence thermal regulation , which can affect sexual determination of the offspring . Viviparity A viviparous reptile will retain the embryos in the oviduct until the neonate is fully formed and is born. The majority of reptiles are oviparous, but there are around 100 species of lizard and snake that are viviparous, including: Alligator lizards, Elgaria coerulea Boa constrictor, Boa constrictor Many geckos Many species of skink Turtle-headed sea snakes, Emydocephalus ijimae As there is a large variety of viviparous reptiles, it is not surprising that they exhibit â€Å"all grades of embryonic nutrition† , ranging from an almost total dependence on the stores of egg yolk, to a total reliance on maternal nutrient transfer. The South American skink, Mabuya heathi, is viviparous and produces newly ovulated eggs that are around 1mm in diameter. The embryo obtains more than 99% of its nutrition from placental transfer from the mother. Pregnancy lasts 8-12 months and the majority of the placental nutrient provision occurs in the last 3 months of gestation. There is no agreed theory why only squamate reptiles show viviparity and none in chelonians or crocodilians. Recent theories suggest that it evolved in colder climates, as the embryo can benefit from maternal thermoregulatory behaviour, such as basking, allowing the embryo to develop faster . This does not mean that viviparity is restricted to cooler regions, and a number of viviparous species of the genus Sceloporus, exist in both warm and cool regions of varying altitude in the south-west of America and in Mexico . Parthenogenesis The majority of reptile species reproduce sexually, but a small number of species are able to reproduce parthenogenetically. Asexual reptiles often have three common features: they originate from the hybridization of two species, reproduction is from clonal inheritance and all are female . Unisexual reptiles were first noted in 1935, when it was noted that there had never been any male fox gecko, Hemidactylus garnoti, observed . Parthenogenesis has been reported in over 30 species of squamate reptile, mostly xantusiids, gekkonids, lacertids and teiids . There is only one species of snake that is parthenogenetic, the Brahminy blind snake, Ramphotyphlops braminus. Parthenogenesis reduces the costs of reproduction, as there is no energy invested in the males, and each individual female can reproduce independently. It has the disadvantage that the progeny will not easily adapt to changes in environment. The parthenogenic females produce diploid eggs from unreduced gametes, so all offspring are genetically identical to the parent . Unisexual species occur as a result of hybridization, and â€Å"each unisexual vertebrate species combines at its inception much of the genetic diversity of two different sexual species† . There are no intermediate forms, backcross genome combinations or hybrid zones that involve the parental taxa . Parthenogenetic species do not need to reproduce sexually, but sexual behaviour does still occur. Some parthenogenetic species of whiptail lizard, Cnemidophorus, have been seen to mount others in pseudocopulation . This behaviour is almost identical to that of Cnemidophori lizards that are not parthenogenetic . This occurs under crowded conditions and probably is not related to reproduction . Parental body condition Reproduction is energy-expensive for most species, but the degree varies with species and gender . â€Å"Capital breeders† rely on energy that has been stored as fats or proteins, rather than relying on energy intake . This suggests that there is a threshold amount of energy that is required to be stored before the animal is capable of reproduction . In reptiles, it is often associated with ambush predators, such as the European asp, Vipera aspis. Only females have an energy threshold that is required prior to breeding, and female V. aspis will not attempt to reproduce until â€Å"they exceed a certain minimal level of body reserves for vitellogenesis† . In males, there is no energy-dependent threshold, and in V. aspis, there is no noticeable difference in body condition between reproductive and non-reproductive males . However, it has been noted that there is a decrease in feeding behaviour in male vipers during the breeding season, as males devote more time and energy to finding a mate. Captive breeding ofSaint Croix’s anole, Anolis acutus, in the Caribbean, has shown that an increase in food intake has no effect on the reproductive effort of females, but it did cause an increase for males. Reproductive effort is calculated as 100 x gonad weight / lean body weight . Another reptile where body size and condition show no effect on reproduction and mean egg clutch size is Rodrigues lava lizard, Eurolophosaurus nanuzae. In this species, female reproduction is instead influenced by photoperiod, long-term precipitation and temperature. â€Å"Income breeders† do not store energy for reproduction; instead reproduction is fuelled by feeding . It is usually a linear relationship, where an increase in the energy available results in an increase in reproductive output . The Oriental garden lizard, Calotes versicolor, can be found in regions where there is an abundance of food. It maintains a store of abdominal body fat, which is used to provide energy for vitellogenesis for the first clutch of the season. After this, they switch to being income breeders and rely on constant daily feeding to produce enough energy for any consequent clutches of eggs. Reproductive behaviour Every reptile species has its own specific reproductive behaviour associated with mating, nesting and caring for the young. In the male T. sirtalis parietalis, the choice of female is influenced by the characteristics and attributes of the female. In garter snakes, it has been shown that larger, heavier females are more desirable to the males and attract more courtship than smaller, thinner snakes]. It can be estimated that the intensity of the mating behaviour in most male reptiles is influenced by three factors: Phenotypic aspects that influence ability to compete Potential fitness benefits from mating Intensity of competition for mating Male T. sirtalis parietalis display most courtship behaviour when alone with a female, and if there are many males all competing for the same female then they show a significant reduction in courtship behaviour . In other reptile species, the male can have displays that could consist of coloured skin patches and loud calling or unusual activities, such as in the â€Å"push-up displays† of the male side-blotched lizard, Uta stansburiana . The disadvantage of this display is a reduced endurance in the leg muscle, which may be needed to escape a predator. Male ornate crevice-dragons, Ctenophorus ornatus, have brightly coloured patches of skin on their chests. These can be used to predict the size of a male’s territory and how many females live in that territory . Ritual combat allows males to compete for dominance prior to mating, and the winner often gets the female. These battles consist of entwining with and pushing the opponent to the ground to subdue him. This is seen in a number of species, including: Australian blacksnakes, Pseudechis porphyriacus Western rattlesnake, Crotalus viridis Many colubrids, including Chironius bicarinatus   Tuatara, Sphenodon punctatus Snouted cobras will refuse to mate unless they have performed a combat ritual with another male . It is rare that the female has a choice in partners, and in C. ornatus, the females show no preference amongst different males, despite the varying intensity and colour of the male’s display patches . This could mean that the colours are for male dominance competitions rather than luring a mate. Female choice has only been conclusively proven in a few species, including Lacerta agilis and several Anolis lizards . In leopard geckos, Eublepharis macularius, the sexual and agonistic behaviour can be affected by the gonadal sex and the incubation temperature, as they both affect sex steroid hormone release . Female leopard geckos that were incubated at an intermediate temperature were less â€Å"attractive† to the male geckos than females that were incubated at warmer temperatures . Parental care The benefit of parental care over a clutch of eggs could be to increase the survival rate of the eggs. The parental care may be in the form of defending the nest site, egg brooding by muscular thermogenesis or egg attendance. Different reptile species display differing amounts of parental care. The majority do not exhibit any parental care, such as turtles. Those exhibiting parental care include: Crocodilians Long-tailed skinks, Mabuya longicaudata Skinks of the genus Eumeces Pythons Asian forest tortoise, Manouria emys   Female crocodilians give large amounts of parental care to both the eggs and the young after hatching. The females will remain close to the nest and defend it from potential predators. The male is not present when the eggs are laid but there may still be some male role in nest protection. Young Nile crocodiles, Crocodylus niloticus, vocalise while still in the egg and continue to do so after hatching . These calls lead the mother to the nest, who then opens it, help the young escape from the shell and carries the hatched young to water . After hatching, the young may also give distress calls which would stimulate defensive behaviour by the adults . It is possible that the young could be calling to each other, to synchronise hatching and ensure survival from predators . Snakes exhibiting parental care usually do so in the form of egg attendance and defensive behaviour, usually in species that are either large or venomous, as these can easily defend the nests. Pythons participate in egg brooding which keeps the eggs warm by muscular thermogenesis, but in Children’s pythons, Antaresia childreni, excessive brooding can smother the eggs, causing hypoxia due to the partially permeable shells. This can give â€Å"smaller, slower and weaker† offspring than the offspring of pythons that do not egg-brood. Reproductive effort as a life history trait The amount of effort expended in reproduction can affect the survival of the animal or can affect future reproduction, and so a trade-off is required   In squamate reptiles, survival costs often result from the â€Å"risk of death associated with a reproductive event† , an example being that a gravid female has a reduced mobility and is easily predated upon. Reproduction requires increased energy and so the animal will require a higher food intake, both before copulation and during pregnancy. The foraging or hunting may make them more at risk from predators . Reproductive costs arise because the animal devotes energy to its current reproductive bout. This energy cannot be used for growth of the animal and will not give a higher fecundity during a later reproductive bout . In squamate reptiles, survival costs are considered more important than reproductive costs, and the trade-off between present and future fecundities may not be significant for many species The counter arguments to this are that â€Å"variation in the form of trade-offs relating offspring size and survival substantially affect relationships among clutch size, relative clutch mass, and lifetime reproductive success†, and that the way in which adult mortality is simulated in the mathematical model can significantly affect the conclusions about the potential fecundity trade-offs . The environment may affect the reproductive effort, destabilising the trade-offs. An example of this would be an individual that is in a poor condition, which could result in it getting a poor territory and suffering increased mortality or reduced fecundity as a result . Both survival and reproduction costs can be seen in the tree lizard, Urosaurus ornatus in New Mexico, which lays two clutches of eggs during the summer. It has been shown that reducing the eggs in the first clutch, by surgically reducing the number of follicles, resulted in females that had a higher survival rates, and larger second clutches . Many species with short life spans tend to have multiple clutches each year and have a high clutch mass to female mass ratio. However, many species with long life spans tend to be more restrained with their reproductive activities . Energy expenditure per progeny The energy invested in an egg by the mother has an effect on the size and health of the neonate in oviparous reptiles . Females can produce either large clutches of many small eggs or small clutches of large eggs . Female veiled chameleon, Chamaeleo calyptratus produce clutches of 20-40 eggs, each weighing 1.5g . Female Fiji banded iguana, Brachylophus fasciatus are the same size but produce clutches of 3-4 eggs, each weighing 10g . In some species, the eggs are smaller than optimum due to the structural constraint of the size of the female’s pelvis. The eggs of the painted turtle, Chrysemys picta are proportional to the width of the pelvis opening, so larger females lay larger eggs . By contrast, all lizards in the genus Anolis produce only one egg in each clutch, and this egg is sized so that it is the largest that can possibly fit through the pelvis . In several species of lizard, the clutch size is fixed and â€Å"the female is not able to divide the energy invested during the single reproductive bout into more offspring†. These species include: Anolis Gekkonidae Dibamidae Some skinks The size of the egg generally increases with the size of the species, but it is not directly proportional. Larger species have smaller offspring relative to their adult body size than do small species . Some species that have variable clutch sizes include: Crocodilians Tuataras Most turtles Many squamate retiles The total number of offspring in a clutch is ultimately dependent on the number of follicles produced, the proportion of follicles that become vitellogenic and the incidence of atresia of vitellogenic follicles prior to ovulation . It has been noted that other factors can affect the size of the clutch produced. An increased environmental temperature earlier in the year has been shown to lead to earlier breeding, as well as giving an increased clutch size, possibly due to â€Å"changes in the reproductive cycle and energy expenditure† . Offspring size All offspring produced by oviparous reptiles have characteristics that are â€Å"highly dependent upon the physical conditions that the embryo experiences prior to hatching† , such as its time of hatching, performance abilities,   size, shape, behaviour and thermoregulatory preferences. There is an inverse relationship between offspring size and clutch size, but this can be influenced by maternal body size . Studies into the spiny lizard, Sceloporus virgatus, have shown that there is no correlation between egg mass and maternal body mass . This is different to most turtle species, where the maximum possible egg size is limited by the diameter of the pelvic opening . Snakes are not constrained by the pelvic girdle, and so there is a positive correlation between the width of the egg laid and the female’s mass. Eggs in the same clutch tend to give uniform-sized offspring. There are rarely overly large or small offspring, possibly because eggs have been exposed to similar hydric and thermal conditions throughout embryogenesis, and so have all developed in the same way . The phenotype of the reptile hatching out of the egg can be significantly influenced by the â€Å"thermal regimes selected by the gravid female immediately prior to laying†, as well as food availability to the gravid female. If the female lays large numbers of eggs, then the energetic and nutritional variance within the clutch is   low for reptiles, compared with birds . Sex determination In reptile species, gender can be determined either by genetics or temperature In temperature-dependent sex determination of species that lay eggs, the temperature of the eggs is controlled by the nest temperature, as with egg-brooding pythons . In viviparous species, the temperature is controlled by basking. The thermoregulatory history of viviparous reptiles can affect a number of characteristics of the offspring, including: Size Phenotype Survival Locomotor performance Behaviour At temperatures that produce females, the enzyme aromatase is induced and converts testosterone to oestradiol, which binds to oestrogen receptors, triggering feminisation. At temperatures that produce males, the enzyme 5ÃŽ ±-reductase is induced and converts testosterone to dihydrotestosterone, which binds to androgen receptors, triggering differentiation of testes . In snapping turtles, eggs developing at â€Å"female producing temperatures† have a hormonal environment in which oestradiol concentrations decline at a slower rate than those at â€Å"mixed sex temperatures† or â€Å"male producing temperatures† . There are three patterns of temperature-dependent sex determination: Males at cool temperatures, females at warm temperatures Females at cool temperatures, males at warm temperatures Females at coolest and warmest temperatures, males at intermediate temperatures The range of temperatures that can give both sexes is typically only 1 °C and varies for each species. The temperature that gives 50% of each sex is known as the â€Å"pivotal temperature† . All crocodilian species exhibit temperature-dependent sex determination . In the black caiman, Caiman latirostris, incubating the eggs at 29-31 °C gives female offspring, and incubating at 33 °C gives male offspring. At 34.5 °C, both male and female are hatched In the American alligator, Alligator mississippiensis, there are three types of nesting site, which all have differing temperatures : Levee  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   ß 34 °C Wet marsh  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   ß 30 °C Dry marsh  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   ß 34 °C on top and 30 °C at peripheries Alligators nesting in wet marshes produce nearly 100% female offspring, and females â€Å"tend to seek a temperature environment that is as close as possible to that of their own incubation† . This gives a skewed sex ratio of nearly 10 female alligators to 1 male. Temperature-dependent sex determination was originally thought to occur exclusively in species that lack sex chromosomes, but it has been shown to co-exist with genetic-dependent sex determination in some species, including geckos and some skinks Environmental factors that affect reproduction It has been shown that environmental and nest temperatures can affect the gender of the hatchlings , and variations in temperature can also affect factors such as foraging, breeding seasons and hibernation . Climate warming in China has been shown to shift the oviposition dates of the Chinese alligator, Alligator sinensis, to earlier in the year, as well as to increase the mean clutch size . Ecological events in the area inhabited by a reptile can also affect the reproduction, and human land-management can be a major factor. The desert horned lizard, Phrynosoma platyrhinos, will prefer to inhabit areas where cattle grazing has occurred, presumably due to an abundance of prey species. This would mean that there would be increased reproductive rates. In southern Texas, burning scrubland in the winter is commonplace, and can have an effect on the reptile populations. â€Å"Winter burning provides an increase in food resources and leads to increased survival of Texas horned lizards, Phrynosoma cornutum, in the second growing season after fire† . In other cases, habitat loss may have an adverse effect on the reproduction of reptiles. In Argentina, deforestation has been shown to have an effect on the Argentine boa constrictor, Boa constrictor occidentalis, particularly causing a decrease in body condition, clutch size and testicular volume . Conclusions Species variations in reptile reproduction may be quite large, with some species able to reproduce at any time throughout the year and others having dissociative reproductive cycles where the female can â€Å"store† the male’s sperm . Other aspects are typically less varied; spermatogenesis and oogenesis are similar in most species . Anatomical species differences can be seen in the structure of the male reproductive organs. Some, such as tuatara lack a penis at all , whereas snakes have two hemipenes . In testudines the penis is used solely for reproduction and is not even connected to the urinary tract . Reptilian life-history traits can vary between species and include clutch size, offspring size and mode of parity. Some reptile species are oviparous and lay eggs, such as the pit viper, Trimeresurus flavoviridis , some oviparous species are even parthenogenetic and all-female. Others are ovoviviparous, like S. jarrovi and others are viviparous and produce live young, such as M. heathi . Reproductive behaviour also varies between species and can help the reptile select a suitable mate   and parental care can help ensure the survival of the offspring, even if it is detrimental to the health of the parent . 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Chiaraviglio, Landscape changes influence the reproductive behaviour of a key capital breeder snake (Boa constrictor occidentalis) in the Gran Chaco region, Argentina. Biological Conservation, 2008. 141(12): p. 3050-3058

Marketing plan for rent a runway Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Marketing plan for rent a runway - Essay Example This report will analyze the strengths of this company in creating the right options for marketing while offering new ways and initiatives which the company can use to continue to expand the product line and interest in the runway. Business Mission The basis of Rent a Runway is to assist individuals who like high fashion but are on a budget or only need a fashion item for one occasion. The objective is to offer individual options from professional stylists while assisting with fashion forward looks for any occasion. The mission is based on women being able to look their best at any occasion while providing fashion forward advice and alternatives to assist with the best looks for any occasion. The team has expanded to designers and professionals that are able to assist in creating the perfect outfits for women and men that are preparing for any occasion (Rent the Runway, 2011). External Marketing Audit: Market Competition The fashion items that are offered through the Internet are con tinuing to grow and bring attention to the runway items of the season. The main competition is coming from emerging fashion stores that are able to offer luxury and brand name items at a lower price. These are combined with wholesale stores that offer even more opportunities for those looking at different fashions and designs. These are known to move higher into the competition based on price, types of designers available and the region which they are located in. They are furthered with competition that is based on finding the right clothes at a lower price. The current marketing competition for fashion is based on an emerging market that is expected to grow by 7 – 15% by the year 2020. These demands are based on the ability to get low priced fashions that are in style for the season and based on luxury and brand names at a discount (BofF Team, 2011). The continuous growth and expectations for online portals is causing several to turn to Internet solutions for their business. There is now advice that is being sent to those who are looking for new ways to promote business to move online, including retailers and those interested in the fashion business. This is leading brick and mortar retailers, wholesale businesses and others involved in creating other links to customers to set up businesses online. This is combined with emerging designers and brand names that are creating the same links to an online presence. Each of these are combining strategies for a stronger presence, leading to competitive alternatives based on customer loyalty and a growing global market. The association is based on creating a stronger sense of customer loyalty through the businesses that are working together (Haley, 2011). Internal Marketing Audit The association with Rent the Runway is one which is taking the main trends with the online presence among fashion lovers and expanding the market into one that holds several strengths. For the online portal to continue to work; howeve r, there is the need to extensively examine the marketing tactics and alternatives that are available. By doing this, there is the ability to create a stronger presence while moving forward with the competition that is online. Operating Results The operations that are a part of the online portal are based on a process that is required for an individual to be a part of. When one goes to the website, they are immediately

Report Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Report - Coursework Example Communication can only be successful and effective, it has to be two way. Therefore, this implies that a good manager should not only be a good orator but also a good listener. This means that it is not only the managers who would be the cause of communication breakdown in the organisation but the employees as well. Employees need to have the confidence to share any concerns they may have concerning the running of the organisation since in the end they also have some stake in the performance of the organisation. The aim of this report was to identify the possible causes of lack of communication in the organization, and from these propose possible recommendations that could ensure better management, and greater and better communication between managers and the staff. Fear makes the staff feel the urge to protect them. In such a case, they are likely not to be open to sharing any interests or thoughts pertaining to their work in the organisation. Consequently, this will result in subdued communication in the organisation. This makes it hard for the staff in the organisation to work towards attaining the goals and objectives of the organisation. Inevitably, the organisation will suffer and lose its competitive edge in the overly competitive market. According to the egalitarian theories of leadership, everyone at the place of work are equal and need to be treated like so. This will ensure that the employees feel free enough to easily share their views. In an instance where the members of the organisation lack any form of commitment to the achievement of the goals and objectives, they tend to slack. They will not have the drive to perform well or do their assigned work to the best of their abilities. The staff will barely focus on what it takes in order for the organisation to success. The result of this is normally lack of communication. According to Douglas McGregor’s Theory Y of management

The true nature of Richards character Essay Example for Free

The true nature of Richards character Essay In his opening soliloquy, the true nature of Richards character is revealed, his villainy being divulged in the devious plans that he has plotted in order to usurp the throne. An array of puns, metaphors, and antitheses are used with ironic flair to convey the undertones in his monologue, granting the audience valuable insight to the play. The language that is used masterfully conveys the sarcasm in Richardss words, this being seen in the antithesis of winter and summer in the first two lines. The contrasting metaphors in these lines are seemingly used as a tool to relay the contrary meanings in his words, suggesting that what he speaks is not what he thinks. This hence serves as a hint to the fact that he is not entirely happy about the victory of the son of York- a pun for the house of York, as it was followed by the crowning of his brother. Also, it is evident that Richard is not agreeable to changes in his life, this being exemplified in another antithesis seen in stern alarums changed to merry meetings (1.1.7). In fact, he explicitly speaks of this unhappiness in the line where he states that in this weak piping time of peace, he has no delight to pass way the time (1.1.24-25). As such, it is clear that Richard is one who is innately evil; he is never satisfied in peaceful times, with chaos seemingly the only thing would truly allow him to feel alive. Furthermore, the covert bitterness that he feels is subtlely made known with the suggestive and deliberate comparison of wartime activities and the present ones; And now, instead of mounting barbed steeds.he capers nimbly in a ladys chamber (1.1.10-12). With this, he implies that the glorious tasks that he has accomplished in war have been reduced to frivolity in peacetime; spending his time in the company of women. In the subsequent lines, Richard proceeds on to an extensive elaboration on the ugliness of his physique; the deformities that separate him from society. The assonance in cheated of feature emphasizes and reminds the audience of the extent of his ugliness, perhaps, also suggestive of his moral deformities. Once again, the bitterness is evident in his tone as he claims that nature is unfair towards him hence preventing him from proving a lover. He then goes on to proclaim that he is thus determined to prove a villain (1.1.30), as though the fact that nature has create him as such was reason enough, and the sole motivations for his evil ways. Here, it would seem that Richard is attempting to find justification for his wrongdoings, and that the evil in his nature is merely a by-product of the unfairness of his physical appearance. Apart from the soliloquy, it would be difficult for the audience to grasp Richards character as he scarcely exhibits such honesty throughout the play. As such, the fact that the soliloquy is used as a dramatic device in Richards opening speech is extremely important; it gives the audience an accurate insight to his true character. Finally, Richard launches into the evil plans that he has made in order to acquire the throne, conveying them with little feeling or guilt. This is stark proof of his ruthlessness, also serving as a foreshadow to the further evil that he was to commit with the progression of the plot. It is interesting to note that Shakespeare chooses to put Richards self-depreciating lines before his plans. This is perhaps, done so to allow the audience to feel some pity for him before they are enlightened to his evil, and also understand the motivations behind all his wrongdoing. In the conveyance of his plans, Richard shows brutal honesty in his admittance of his evil nature and compares himself to his brother, King Edward. Once again, the use of antithesis is seen in the comparison of his brothers true and just nature to his own false and treacherous one. Here, Richard shamelessly reveals to the audience his plans to exploit the good character of his own brother, a further affirmation of his evil nature. Richards use of language in the soliloquy presents him as a witty and charismatic individual to the audience. In spite of his evil nature and deformed physique, Richard appeals to the audience by speaking directly to them in all but brutal honesty with regards to himself. His interesting choice of formal and figurative elements of language also makes him a dramatic and intriguing character, allowing the audience to appreciate the side of him which is not seen in other parts of the play. In Laurence Olivier and Al Pacinos performance of the opening soliloquy, the audience is exposed to very different interpretations of Richards character. While Olivier begins his monologue facing the audience, Pacino does his with his back constantly faced to the camera, with only one side of his face revealed. The choice of Pacinos body positioning creates a sinister impression perhaps, a reflection of Richards dark nature. On the other hand, the fact that Olivier chooses to allow a full frontal view of his face depicts the straightforwardness of Richards character, an aspect that is overtly presented in his soliloquy. Also, while Oliviers intonation throughout his monologue is almost delivered in a sing-song manner, Pacino alternates between quiet utterances and whispers. This contrasting intonation puts forth another difference in the actors interpretation of Richard; while Olivier is spirited and confident, Pacinos presentation is more subdued and seemingly, defeated. This sense of defeat is also apparent in the manner in which Pacino lets himself fall back against the wall behind him as he speaks of his physical appearance, a subtle indication to the resignation that he feels. However, it is important to note that there is one similarity in the way that both actors deliver their lines; the conveyance of a sense of bitterness which is especially apparent in the lines of self-analysis. While Olivier relays this with the rising of his voice, Pacino does so in a much more subtle manner; with the down turning of his lips. The differences in the actors portrayal of Richard can also be observed in the different aspects of mise-en-scene. One such difference can be seen in the costumes; Oliviers Richard is garbed in richly coloured and stylised clothes, the emphasis being evidently put on his kingly status. On the other hand, Pacino does not dress the like; opting to instead don costumes that make him appear plain and quite common. As such, it is evident that Pacino is attempting to instil a sense of realism to the interpretation of Richard perhaps, the fact that apart from the riches and status, he is just an ordinary man. In addition, the types of lighting used in both scenes also create a very different atmosphere; while Olivier makes use of artificial lighting to simulate daytime, Pacino does the opposite, using low-key lighting which shrouds his surroundings in darkness and shadows. The result of using low-key lighting has a pronounced effect on the audiences view of Pacino in the play as his face is almost always hidden in the shadows, a sense of mystery is created around his character. Interestingly, the contrast of the greenery visible through the windows to the dark interior walls in Pacinos scene reflects a covert facet of Richards inner world; he is caged by the demons within himself, living in a darkness that separates him from everyone else. The manner in which the audience interprets both scenes is also affected by the editing of the shots. In comparison to Oliviers six shots in seven minutes, Pacino does eighty-nine in the same time span, with the speed of the cuts creating a sense of spontaneity that is often seen in theatre performances. (Method acting and Pacinos looking for Richard, pg.7). Also, the fast sequences can be seen as a reflection of Richards mind; it moves at great speeds as he is constantly plotting against his brothers and thinking of ways to usurp the throne. The constant switching of scenes between Pacinos soliloquy and the various commentaries also creates a sense of suspense for the audience, compelling them to wait in anticipation and at the same time, allowing a better understanding of Richards character. More importantly, the fast rhythm of Pacinos play keeps the audiences on their toes, creating a sense of constant change that is ever present in the chaotic world that Richard thrives in. Hence, it is apparent that the Richard that Olivier and Pacino attempts to present are vastly different. The aspects of mise-en-scene and the fashion in which they act and deliver their lines serve to further illustrate this fact. While Oliviers play is highly dramatized with fake medievalism, Pacino chooses to put forth a much more realistic version, creating a Richard that is much more relevant and comprehensible to the contemporary audience. References Shakespeare, William. Richard III. 2nd revised Ed. New York, Signet Classics. 1998. Print. Su, Peirui. Method Acting and Pacinos Looking for Richard. CLC web: Comparative Literature and Culture. Volume 6 Issue 1. Purdue University Press. (March 2004). Web.

What Buddhism and Christianity Teach about the Significance, Purpose, and Value of Human Life :: essays research papers

What do Buddhism and Christianity Teach About the Significance, Purpose And Value of Human Life? BUDDHISM " The concern of Buddhism is with man rather than with the material universe. The phenomenal world is held to be without substance and to be in a constant condition of flux. Man himself is no less impermanent than the material world."* Â ¾ Human life is subject to Anicca, the law of impermanence. This means that nothing ever stays the same To be born human is a rare opportunity. Buddhists take this notion so seriously that a story was written for the sole purpose of illustrating it. It is called ‘The Turtle and The Yoke'. A turtle is described, swimming around in the ocean, popping up for air every thousand years or so. It is claimed that the chance of being incarnated human are the same as that of the turtle putting his head through the yoke (which also floats around the ocean) on one of his trips to the top. It follows, therefore, that to waste it is to waste numberless lives spent trying to gain this precious rebirth and also the chance of enlightenment. The law of Karma says: All actions will entail consequences in the next life, so a Buddhist's freedom could be said to be somewhat compromised. This law means that, to be reincarnated human, you must live a near-perfect life. Any wrong doing on our part is foolish, because the condition experienced in present existence is regarded as having been caused by past deeds. It is beneficial, therefore, to use the golden opportunity wisely, as you are unlikely ever to get another `crack at the apple'. Buddhism and therefore human life is ‘a quest to free us and the world from suffering and to promote happiness.' CHRISTIANITY "Human life is the basis of all values; it is the source and indispensable condition for every human activity and all society" Each human is made in the image of God, with power to reason and choose. Therefore every human life should be cherished and preserved and all lives, rich or poor, strong or weak, young or old. ‘Society itself can be judged by its attitude towards its weaker members.' God `owns' our lives and bodies, or rather he gave them to us as a gift and we must not give it up or abuse it. "Do you know that your body is a temple of the holy spirit, which you have from God? You are not on your own, you were bought with a price. So glorify God in your body. Pope Jean Paul II summed up this idea in a statement he issued in 1980.

The Great Depression The Biggest Economic Downfall

The Great Depression is the biggest economic downfall America has ever experienced. It was a time when almost all Americans suffered, one way or another. It was a devastating period for several people and, therefore, thousands went through rough family separations, poverty, and other emotionally challenging experiences. Starting in 1929 lasting ten years, this was one of the longest economic downfalls in the history of such a modernized world, and unfortunately, the people were highly affected, as over fifteen million people became unemployed, which is a prodigious twenty-five percent of the population (Taylor, par. 7). Due to the fact that America was one of the most industrialized nations, this depression was truly unexpected. One stock market crash set America in a completely different direction, and the American dream that everyone aspired to achieve in their lifetimes suddenly vanished. Thousands of people became jobless and got thrown into the streets, not knowing what to do. A lbeit many may say that the people suffered deeply, others believed there was a silver lining. Survivors of The Great Depression mention that they have changed emotionally, physically, and have become more conscious towards helping their planet Earth. Thus, while the lack of financial security during the Great Depression was certainly emotionally stressful, for many Americans this uncertainty actually triggered significant personal character developments in many facets of their lives. DuringShow MoreRelatedThe Great Depression and President Herbert Hoover783 Words   |  4 PagesTaking office the same year as the Great Depression, Americas thirty first president, Herbert Hoover greatly impacted the lives of many Americans. It has been stated that the stalk market crash was to blame for the greatest economic downturn in American; however, Ex-President Hoover made critical mistakes during the depression that he would be blamed for the rest of his life. 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